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mbalenhle2003

The Causes and Consequences of Africa's Slave Trade - 3 views

Mbalenhle Magagula History 2A

shared by mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • These were lists of slaves that were emancipated in 1884–1885 and in 1874–1908. The list recorded the slave’s name, age, ethnic identity, date freed, and former master’s name. 22 Together, the three samples include 9,774 slaves with 80 different ethnicities. Two additional samples of slaves shipped to Mauritius in the 19th century are also available. However, these samples only distinguish between slaves that were originally from the island of Madagascar and slaves from mainland Africa. 23 The data from the Mauritius samples are used to distinguish between slaves who were originally from mainland Africa and those from Madagascar. The number of slaves from mainland Africa are then disaggregated using the sample of slaves from the Zanzibar National Archive documents, as well as a small sample of nine slaves from Harris’ The African Presence in Asia. In total, the Indian Ocean ethnicity data include 21,048 slaves with 80 different ethnicities.
    • mbalenhle2003
      mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23
       
      The Red Sea statistics come from two samples: 62 slaves from Jedda, Saudi Arabia, and five slaves from Bombay, India. The samples from India and Saudi Arabia are from two British studies that were submitted to the League of Nations and were later published in the League of Nations' Council Documents in 1936 and 1937, respectively, by Harris' The African Presence in Asia.24The samples contain data on 67 slaves overall, representing 32 different racial groups. There are two samples available for the trans-Saharan slave trade: one from Central Sudan and the other from Western Sudan. 5,385 slaves' origins are revealed through the samples, and 23 different nationalities are identified.25The Saharan ethnicity data's primary flaw is that they do not include samples from all locations.
  • These were lists of slaves that were emancipated in 1884–1885 and in 1874–1908. The list recorded the slave’s name, age, ethnic identity, date freed, and former master’s name. 22 Together, the three samples include 9,774 slaves with 80 different ethnicities. Two additional samples of slaves shipped to Mauritius in the 19th century are also available. However, these samples only distinguish between slaves that were originally from the island of Madagascar and slaves from mainland Africa. 23 The data from the Mauritius samples are used to distinguish between slaves who were originally from mainland Africa and those from Madagascar. The number of slaves from mainland Africa are then disaggregated using the sample of slaves from the Zanzibar National Archive documents, as well as a small sample of nine slaves from Harris’ The African Presence in Asia. In total, the Indian Ocean ethnicity data include 21,048 slaves with 80 different ethnicities.
    • mbalenhle2003
      mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23
       
      These were lists of slaves who were freed between 1874 and 1908 and between 1884 and 1885. The list included the name, age, ethnicity, date of freedom, and former master's name for each slave.22There are 9,774 slaves total in the three datasets, representing 80 distinct ethnic groups. There are also two other examples of slaves who were sent to Mauritius in the 19th century. These samples, however, only make a distinction between slaves from the continent of Africa and those who were originally from the island of Madagascar.23The information from the Mauritius samples is utilized to distinguish between slaves who came from Madagascar and those who came from the continent of Africa. The number of slaves from continental Africa is then broken down using a small sample of nine captives from Harris' The African Presence in Asia as well as a sample of slaves from the Zanzibar National Archive papers.
  • The Red Sea data are from two samples: a sample of five slaves from Bombay, India and a sample of 62 slaves from Jedda, Saudi Arabia. The sample from India is from Harris’ The African Presence in Asia, and the sample from Saudi Arabia which is from two British reports submitted to the League of Nations, and published in the League of Nations’ Council Documents in 1936 and 1937. 24 In total, the samples provide information for 67 slaves, with 32 different ethnicities recorded. For the trans-Saharan slave trade, two samples are available: one from Central Sudan and the other from Western Sudan. The samples provide information on the origins of 5,385 slaves, with 23 different ethnicities recorded. 25 The main shortcoming of the Saharan ethnicity data is that they do not provide samples from all regions from which slaves were taken during the Saharan slave trade. However, the shipping data from Ralph Austen not only provide information on the volume of trade, but also information on which caravan slaves were shipped on, the city or town that the caravan originated in, the destination of the caravan, and in some cases, the ethnic identity of the slaves being shipped
    • mbalenhle2003
      mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23
       
      The Red Sea statistics come from two samples: 62 slaves from Jedda, Saudi Arabia, and five slaves from Bombay, India. Both the sample from India and the sample from Saudi Arabia are taken from British reports that were submitted to the League of Nations and published in the League of Nations Council Documents in 1936 and 1937, respectively. The sample from India is taken from Harris' The African Presence in Asia.24The samples contain data on 67 slaves overall, representing 32 different racial groups. There are two samples available for the trans-Saharan slave trade, one from Central Sudan and the other from Western Sudan. 5,385 slaves' origins are revealed through the samples, and 23 different nationalities are identified. The Saharan ethnicity data's primary flaw is that they carried slaves on caravans when shipping them.
  • ...2 more annotations...
  • Admittedly, the final estimates for the Saharan slave trade are very poor. This is also true for the Red Sea slave trade. However, it will be shown that all of the statistical results are completely robust with or without the estimates of slaves shipped during these two slave trades. That is, the statistical findings remain even if the Red Sea and Saharan slave trades are completely ignored because of the poor quality of their data. Combining the ethnicity data with the shipping data, estimates of the number of slaves taken from each country in Africa are constructed. 26 The construction procedure follows the following logic. Using the shipping data, the number of slaves shipped from each coastal country in Africa is first calculated. As mentioned, the problem with these numbers is that slaves shipped from the ports of a coastal country may not have come from that country, but from inland countries that lie landlocked behind the coastal country. To estimate the number of slaves shipped from the coast that would have come from these inland countries, the sample of slaves from the ethnicity data is used. Each ethnicity is first mapped to modern country boundaries. This step relies on a great amount of past research by African historians. The authors of the secondary sources, from which the data were taken, generally also provide a detailed analysis of the meaning and locations of the ethnicities appearing in the historical records. In many of the publications, the authors created maps showing the locations of the ethnic groups recorded in the documents. For example, detailed maps are provided in Higman’s samples from the British Caribbean, Koelle’s linguistic inventory of free slaves in Sierra Leone, Mary Karasch’s samples from Rio de Janeiro, Aguirre Beltran’s sample from plantation and sales records from Mexico, Adam Jones’ sample of liberated child slaves from Sierra Leone, and David Pavy’s sample of slaves from Colombia. 27 Other sources also provide excellent summaries of the most common ethnic designations used during the slave trades. These include Philip Curtin’s The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, ethnographer George Peter Murdock’s Africa: Its Peoples and Their Cultural History, and Gwendolyn Midlo Hall’s
    • mbalenhle2003
      mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23
       
      The estimates for the trans-Saharan slave trade are, admittedly, rather weak. The Red Sea slave trade is an example of this. It will be demonstrated, nevertheless, that these statistical findings hold true whether or not the estimates of slaves shipped during these two slave exchanges are included. In other words, the statistical results hold true even if the Red Sea and Saharan slave markets are entirely disregarded due to the poor quality of their data. Estimates of the number of slaves taken from each African nation are created by fusing the shipping statistics with the ethnicity data.26The construction process follows the reasoning shown below. The number of slaves sent from each coastline nation in Africa is first determined using the shipping information. As previously stated, the issue with these figures is that slaves shipped from the ports are first estimated.
  • Admittedly, the final estimates for the Saharan slave trade are very poor. This is also true for the Red Sea slave trade. However, it will be shown that all of the statistical results are completely robust with or without the estimates of slaves shipped during these two slave trades. That is, the statistical findings remain even if the Red Sea and Saharan slave trades are completely ignored because of the poor quality of their data. Combining the ethnicity data with the shipping data, estimates of the number of slaves taken from each country in Africa are constructed.The construction procedure follows the following logic. Using the shipping data, the number of slaves shipped from each coastal country in Africa is first calculated. As mentioned, the problem with these numbers is that slaves shipped from the ports of a coastal country may not have come from that country, but from inland countries that lie landlocked behind the coastal country. To estimate the number of slaves shipped from the coast that would have come from these inland countries, the sample of slaves from the ethnicity data is used. Each ethnicity is first mapped to modern country boundaries. This step relies on a great amount of past research by African historians. The authors of the secondary sources, from which the data were taken, generally also provide a detailed analysis of the meaning and locations of the ethnicities appearing in the historical records. In many of the publications, the authors created maps showing the locations of the ethnic groups recorded in the documents. For example, detailed maps are provided in Higman’s samples from the British Caribbean, Koelle’s linguistic inventory of free slaves in Sierra Leone, Mary Karasch’s samples from Rio de Janeiro, Aguirre Beltran’s sample from plantation and sales records from Mexico, Adam Jones’ sample of liberated child slaves from Sierra Leone, and David Pavy’s sample of slaves from Colombia.Other sources also provide excellent summaries of the most common ethnic designations used during the slave trades. These include Philip Curtin’s The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census, ethnographer George Peter Murdock’s Africa: Its Peoples and Their Cultural History, and Gwendolyn Midlo Hall’s Slavery and African Ethnicities in the Americas: Restoring the Links. Many of the ethnic groups in the ethnicity sample do not map cleanly into one country. The quantitatively most important ethnic groups that fall into this category include: the Ana, Ewe, Fon, Kabre, and Popo, who occupied land in modern Benin and Togo; the Kongo, who resided in what is now the Democratic Republic of Congo and Angola; the Makonde, localized within Mozambique and Tanzania; the Malinke, who occupied lived within Senegal, Gambia, Mali, Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Guinea Bissau; the Nalu, from Guinea Bissau and Guinea; the Teke, living in land within Gabon, Congo, and Democratic Republic of Congo; and the Yao from Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania. In cases such as these, the total number of slaves from each ethnic group was divided between the countries using information from George Peter Murdock’s Africa: Its Peoples and Their Cultural History. Ethnic groups were first mapped to his classification of over 800 ethnic groups for Africa. Using a digitized version of a map provided in his book and GIS software, the proportion of land area in each country occupied by the ethnic group was calculated. These proportions were then used as weights to disaggregate the total number of slaves of an ethnicity between the countries. Using the ethnicity sample, an estimate of the number of slaves shipped from each coastal country that would have come from each inland country is calculated. Using these figures, the number of slaves that came from all countries in Africa, both coastal and inland, is then calculated. Because over time, slaves were increasingly being taken from further inland, the estimation procedure is performed separately for each of the following four time periods: 14001599, 1600-1699, 1700-1799, 1800-1900. In other words, for each time period, the shipping data and ethnicity data from that time period only is used in the calculations. In the end, the procedure yields estimates of the number of slaves taken from each country in each of the four slave trades for each of the four time periods listed above.
  • mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23
     
    Non-academic source
zethembiso

Janet J.Ewald.pdf - 4 views

Zethembiso Xaba 222101794 History 2A

shared by zethembiso on 24 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • What sustained the Red Sea slave trade in the nineteenth century? In this paper, I explore how the trade continued through the participation of three groups of people: those drawn into the trade against their will, the slaves; those who trafficked in slaves, buying them in Africa and transporting them across the Red Sea; and those who profited in Arabia from either putting slaves to work or reselling them
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      Janet J. Ewald mentioned these different reasons which made the Red Sea slave trade to continue for a long time
  • 1820 Egyptian invasion of the south, the Nile valley system expanded violently and rapidly to include most of the vast territory that is now the Republic of the Sudan.
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      On 1890 that is when there was an intrusion of the Egyptians, which came out with more violent and Brutal.
  • From the sixteenth through to the eighteenth centuries, the rulers of Sudanese kingdoms supervised exports of slaves via both overland routes to Egypt and Red Sea crossings to the Arabian Peninsula or other Asian destinations.
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      During the period of 1501-1600(16 century) and the period of 1701-1800(18 century) the Sudans territory directed the way of exporting the slaves both overland routs to Egypt and the Red Sea.
  • ...13 more annotations...
  • Seldom
  • After the late 1820s, slaves taken in ghazwas increasingly passed into the hands of traders rather than into military service
  • In the 1830s traders, many of them itinerant jallaba, brought into Egypt possibly as many as 10,000 to 12,000 Sudanese slaves who represented perhaps two-thirds of all captives. 12
  • In 1840, the French consul at Jidda reported that 500 slaves entered that city from Suakin. 13 And Suakin's slave trade appears to have declined with an overall decline in slave exports during the 1840s and 1850s. In 1856, Suakin was estimated to supply only 300 of the 8,550 slaves annually imported into the Hijaz and Yemen. 14
  • Estimates of the numbers of slaves arriving in the Arabian peninsula during the 1870s alone fluctuated even more drastically, from 1,500 to 30,000 people imported annually
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      estimated, they were not so sure sbout the number of slaves imported.
  • Muhammad
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      The founder of Islam and the proclaimer of the Qur 'an, Islam's sacred scripture.
  • At that port in March, 1878, authorities seized 15 enslaved children, most of them from the southern Sudan, at a house belonging to one Suakin trader. Another Suakin trader, discovered in the same house,
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      Even children were sold as slaves also.
  • had brought over 12 of the children from the African port. The children belonged to a much larger group of slaves in Jidda whom authorities could not seize
  • Hajj Musa al-Baghdad
  • Slaves offered new kinds of profits as the economy of the western Arabian peninsula became more closely linked to wider commercia
  • networks
  • The Hijaz and Yemen also became centres of a steamship-borne transit slave trade, as African slaves disembarked from sailing boats and re-embarked on steamers for the Mediterranean or Indian Ocean.
  • Slavery thus did not exist simply as an isolated economic venture, a result of the profits to be made from slave labour. Nor did the Red Sea slave trade continue because of any supposed inherent and universal bias toward slavery in Islamic societies.
    • zethembiso
      zethembiso on 24 Apr 23
       
      Reasons for the slave trade in Red Sea.
lmshengu

exploration of Africa - Students | Britannica Kids | Homework Help - 1 views

kids.britannica.com/...543378

Lwandile Mshengu History 2A

shared by lmshengu on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Archaeological
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      it is the scientific study of material remains such as tools,pottery,jewelry,stone walls and monuments of past human life and activities.
  • The coasts of northern Africa were known to peoples of Europe and Asia since ancient times. Non-Africans later gained knowledge of the western, southern, and eastern coasts. However, the interior of Africa remained largely a mystery to foreigners until the mid-19th century. It was the last of the inhabited continents to be thoroughly explored by outsiders, along with Australia. Africa lies very close to southern Europe and even closer to the Middle East region of Asia. Nevertheless, Europeans explored the distant Americas first.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      The ancient inhabitants of Europe and Asia were aware of the northern African shores. Later, the western, southern, and eastern beaches were known to non-Africans. However, until the middle of the 19th century, the interior of Africa was mainly unknown to outsiders. Along with Australia, it was the last of the inhabited continents to be properly explored by outsiders. The Middle East region of Asia is even closer to Africa than it is to southern Europe. Nevertheless, the far-off Americas were first discovered by Europeans.
  • Africa posed several challenges to foreign explorers
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      Many africans had faced several issues from the foreign explorers
  • ...9 more annotations...
  • Mediterranean Sea.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      The mediterranean sea is a sea connected to the atlantic ocean, surrounded by the mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land on the north by southern europe and anatolia on the south by north africa and on the east by the levant in western asia.
  • fierce storms
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      Fierce storms is a violent storm with extremely strong winds and heavy rain
  • Portugal’s exploring aims were largely commercial. The Portuguese wanted to find a sea route around Africa to the riches of Asia. Like other European powers, they wanted to trade directly in valuable Asian spices. The older trade routes to Asia were becoming increasingly blocked to them.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      Portuguese exploration mostly served commercial interests. The Portuguese sought a sea route from the riches of Asia around Africa. They desired to engage in direct trade in priceless Asian spices, much like other European powers. Older trade routes to Asia were getting more and more closed off to them.
  • The Portuguese wanted to end Muslim control over northern Africa. That desire was one of several reasons why Portugal explored the continent in the 15th century. Spreading Christianity in Africa was another motive for Portuguese exploration, along with scientific curiosity. They also sought great wealth.
  • The Portuguese also wanted to establish trade with western Africa. Gold, ivory, and African slaves had long been traded across the Sahara to Muslims in the north.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      Additionally, the Portuguese desired to open markets in western Africa. African slaves, gold, and ivory had long been traded with Muslims in the north across the Sahara.
  • By the time Henry died in 1460, his navigators had explored the coast as far south as Sierra Leone. For a time the Portuguese were busy fighting the Moroccans, and few exploring expeditions were sent out. John II became king of Portugal in 1481. Under John, the Portuguese once again began exploring Africa regularly
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      By the time Henry passed away in 1460, his explorers had traveled as far south as Sierra Leone to investigate the coastline. Few exploration trips were sent out for a while since the Portuguese were preoccupied with fighting the Moroccans. Portugal's John II was crowned king in 1481. Under John, the Portuguese resumed frequent exploration of Africa.
  • stone pillar
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      A stone pillar having a rectangular cross section tapering towards a pyramidal top.it is a landform, eisther of rock or earth.
  • For the next 15 years, Livingstone was constantly on the move in the African interior. First, he ventured north of Cape Town into the Kalahari, a vast dry plain. By 1842 he had already traveled farther north in the Kalahari than any other European. In 1844 he traveled to Mabotsa to establish a mission station. Along the way he was mauled by a lion, and his left arm was injured. The following year Livingstone married Moffat’s daughter Mary. She accompanied him on many of his travels.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      Livingstone moved about constantly throughout the interior of Africa for the following 15 years. He first traveled into the Kalahari, a large, dry desert, to the north of Cape Town. He had already traversed the Kalahari further north than any previous European by 1842. He went to Mabotsa in 1844 to start a mission station there. He was attacked by a lion along the route, which hurt his left arm. Livingstone wed Mary, Moffat's daughter, the following year. She traveled with him on many occasions.
  • Modern exploration of the Nile basin began when Egypt conquered Sudan starting in 1821. As a result, the Egyptians learned more about the courses of the Blue Nile and the White Nile. A Turkish officer, Selim Bimbashi, led three expeditions between 1839 and 1842. Two of them reached the point in what is now South Sudan where rapids make navigation of the Nile difficult.
    • lmshengu
      lmshengu on 26 Apr 23
       
      When Egypt seized control of Sudan beginning in 1821, modern exploration of the Nile basin began. The Egyptians gained deeper knowledge of the Blue Nile and White Nile's courses as a result. Between 1839 and 1842, Selim Bimbashi, a Turkish officer, was in charge of three expeditions. Two of them arrived at the spot where the Nile's navigation becomes challenging due to rapids in what is now South Sudan
zethembiso

Captain Malcom Letter No.2.pdf - 0 views

Zethembiso Xaba 222101794 History 2A

shared by zethembiso on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • zethembiso on 25 Apr 23
     
    This letter was written on 12 October 1881 by Captain Malcom to the Earl of Northbrook. There was a previous letter received from Sir Alexander Milne on the 10th which was stating that the king wanted Malcom's suggestions about how were they going to defeat the slave trade in the Red Sea. Malcom assumed that the East Indian squadron with the experience their officers had and with the help the Sultan of Zanzibar gave was quite able to cope with it. Malcom requested to refer Blue Book No.1,1879, slave Trade, Egypt,p.9, enclosure to letter No.17, touching on the trade at some ports in the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea, also to p.22, inclosure to letter 32. Malcom said that all those reports were written by him.
nkosithand

Travel and Exploration - Document - Gale eBooks - 0 views

go.gale.com/...retrieve.do

European and African Interaction from the 15th century through 18th

shared by nkosithand on 24 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • The rest of Africa, however, remained a mystery to the outside world until medieval* travelers began exploring the continent. Arabs crossed the northern and western parts of Africa. The Chinese learned much about eastern Africa's coast along the Indian Ocean. Europeans spent hundreds of years charting the shores of Africa and then probing all of the continent's interior. Driven by trade, conquest, religion, science, or curiosity, generations of explorers gradually revealed Africa to the rest of the world.
    • nkosithand
      nkosithand on 02 May 23
       
      The Medieval travellers were the one who begin to explore the continent of Africa. The Europeans spent many years trying to discover Africa and after many years of trying they were able to reveal the continent of Africa to the rest of the world.
  • The major European effort to explore Africa before 1500 took place at sea, not on land, and focused on Africa's western coast. In 1419 Prince Enrique of Portugal, known to later historians as Henry the Navigator, set up a research center on Portugal's south coast to gather information about Africa and to sponsor expeditions southward into waters unknown to European sailors. After the prince died in 1460, Portugal continued to send these explorers out to sea.
    • nkosithand
      nkosithand on 02 May 23
       
      When they were trying to explore Africa, they tried exploring Africa at a sea not in land. They tried to explore Africa in water as they were using Sailers, during the 14th century, Portugal continued with their explorations, as they sent explorers out to the sea.
  • nkosithand on 24 Apr 23
     
    IN THE EARLY 600O, PEOPLE FROM OUTSIDE AFRICA VISITED AFRICA
makhoba

'A Truly Christian Village': The Farmerfield Mission as a Novel Turn in Methodist Evang... - 7 views

www.tandfonline.com/...02582470902859690

Luyanda Makhoba

shared by makhoba on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
    • makhoba
      makhoba on 25 Apr 23
       
      the main aim was to use missions as the tool to overcome they challenges.
  • The history of Farmerfield is thus instructive in the larger analyses of the rise and demise of peasant communities, and of the contours of Christian evangelism in nineteenth-century South Africa. Farmerfield’s history elucidates how Christianity helped Africans of various ethnic backgrounds to redefine and rebuild their identities and communities destabilised by war, dispossession, and racial discrimination. As the locale of this mission, the Eastern Cape features prominently both as a hotbed of colonial warfare, and as a site of experimentation in improving the dire socio-economic conditions Africans faced on the colonial side of the border
  • Missionaries claimed access to special knowledge and, once they had secured access to land, they allocated land to mission residents and welcomed residents from all backgrounds. First informally and then legislatively, some missionaries went as far as to seek exemption from customary law for African Christians.22Mission stations thus became far more than religious havens set apart from a sea of heathenism; missionaries usurped so much chiefly power and authority that the colonial government warned
  • ...5 more annotations...
  • They viewed the mission station as a sacred island in a sea of heathenism and hoped that it would serve as a beacon for local communities. However, as long as allegiance to Christianity required a public renunciation of local cultural traditions, it remained too much of a risky proposition for most Africans. Thus early missions continued to attract social outcasts, economic refugees, and hundreds of others willing to try residence without any promise of conversion. This sea of heathenism had to be addressed on practical as well as spiritual fronts. Missionaries would have to make many social and cultural inroads in African societies before they could expect to generate among Africans a more mature engagement with Christianity.
  • Just as missionaries were willing to unite their spiritual message of Christianity with the goal of civilising Africans, so too were African congregants willing to point out that they could not maintain a proper spiritual state when they faced such material deprivation in the Eastern Cape.
  • to approximately 500 in 1849.29 The tenants brought cattle, sheep, goats and horses with them. With the fee raised to one pound ten shillings, each resident could run sixteen head of cattle on the estate; any number above that obliged the tenant to pay two pounds in rent while the possession of a wagon and oxen incurred an additional charge of ten shillings. The population was a diverse mix of people speaking in varied fluencies of Xhosa, Tswana, Dutch and English. ‘There was considerable difficulty at first in managing their affairs and in imparting religious instruction to such a diversified people, using a variety of languages,’ Shaw exclaimed of his new mission. As a result, the farm
  • Farmerfield was an even more dramatic departure from the trend of nominalism, a way to take the best lessons of the pioneer era and implement a new strategy to maintain African allegiance to Christianity. In many ways, Farmerfield’s origins, its residential blueprint, its locale, and its residents’ creative responses to the strictures and opportunities of mission Christianity guaranteed the mission an enduring place in the annals of Methodist history long after its lustre had gone
  • Although missionaries acknowledged the hardships and resistance they faced, the grand narrative of this era of pioneer missions explained and almost dismissed these challenges as the common trajectory of pioneer work
  • ujhistprof on 16 May 23
     
    Where is the PDF - this link only takes me to the front cover - not the article content.
l222091943

Modern Egypt and Its People.pdf - 1 views

Lindiwe.S Mbatha 222091943

shared by l222091943 on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • The subject to be treated in this paper is " Modern Egypt and its People." It i
  • Compared to Eastern princes, he towers infinitely above them all except his grandfather
  • The first question for consideration is: Who and what are the Modern Egyptians?
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      I think modern Egyptian are people with genetic affinities primarily with population of north Africa and the middle East.
  • ...60 more annotations...
  • Some of the latest and best authorities fix the foundation of Memphis by Menes at 4000 years B. C., and the building of the pyramids at 500 years later; the obelisk of Heliopolis and the tombs of Beni Hassan at 3000, all of which necessarily implies onie or two thousand years of previous consolidation to create an empire capable of such achievements.
  • Finally the Turks, under Sultan Selim, conquered Egypt in 1517, and hold it to this day.
  • wondrou
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      wondrous meaning the inspiring feeling of wonder or delights
  • Its soil was trod by Abraham and Jacob, Joseph and Moses, as well as by Herodotus, Pythagoras and Plato. After the glories of the Pharaohs and the conquests of Cambyses, came those of Alexander. Then followed the Ptolemies, Anthony and Cleopatra, Pompey and Caesar and Augustus.
  • he Nile,
  • In the Soudan, negro blood begins to predominate. To these elements must be added 90,000 Circassians, Jews, Syrian s and Armenians, 40,000 Turks and about 100,000 Europeans; and in the deserts, 300,000 Bedouins who are of a type entirely different from all the rest, being nearly all of pure Arab blood
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      the Nile what was the Nile it was the major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. which flowed into the Mediterranean Sea.
  • Mohammed Ali was born at Cavalla, in Macedonia, on the Gulf of Salonica, in 176
  • t Memlooks would soon treat him as they had done all his predecessors, he resolved to suiypress them. Suimmoned to the citadel of Cairo on the 1st of March, 1811, for a state ceremony, they repaired there on horseback, about 800 strong. The ouiter gate, Bab-el-azab, was closed on them, and the first inner gate al
  • , Mohammed Ali organized his army upon the European model, with the assistance of numerous French officers, and commenced all these reforms in civil as well as military matters which have placed Egypt so far ahead of other Mussulman countries. He died insane in 1849.
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Mohammed ali passed away on 1849.
  • Ibrahim-Pasha, his son, exercised a short time the functions of regent, but died before his father. He was a great soldier, and twice-in 1832 and 1839-he would have driven the Sultan out of Constantinople had he not been stopped in the height of victory by the European power
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Ibrahim-pasha son took over the reins but did not live longer, he passed away before his father he was known as a good soldier.
  • r Mohammed Ali came Abbas-Pasha, a cruel tyrant, who died by violence in 1854; then Said-Pasha, and in 1863 Ismall-Pasha, the son of Ibrahim, who was forced to abdicate a year or two ago.
  • Ismagl-Pasha, the deposed Khedive, was once the most belauded of men, as he became afterwards the best abused; yet he might say, in the words of the French poet: " Wais je n'ai m6ritO Ni cet excbs d'honneur ni cette indignit6."
    • l222091943
      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      the most fearless man changed and become the most abused man this were his words in the French poem.
  • " Modern Egypt and its People.
  • Pompey's pillar, nearly 100 feet total height, the shaft being of a single piece of red Syenite granite, highly polished, 73 feet in length, was erected about the year 300 of our era, in honor of Diocletian, and had no more connection with Pompey the Great than Cleopatra's needles with Cleopat
  • Egypt should perish of hunger. Ismail's greatest error was in not tendering a compromise of 50 per cent. of his debL, which would have been accepted gladly, and 3 or 4 per cent. interest, instead of 12 and 14 and 20, which he had been paying for years.
  • His son, the present Khedive, has much less ability than his father, and is a mere figurehead, the consuls and commissioners having virtual control. The ex-Khedive and his sons are well educated for Orientals, and in their habits and mode of living, are quite European except as regards the hareem. They all speak French fluentl
  • Alexandria, or Iskanderia, as the Arabs call it, is the great seaport of Egypt, founded and named by Alexander 332 B.
  • The Arab quarters are inhabited by about 200,000 natives, and the European population amount to 60,000 more
  • Out of a debt of one hundred millions of pounds Egypt never realized over forty-five millions, and the suffering inflicted upon his people by excessive taxation was partly due to his extravagance,
  • They were originally at Heliopolis, but were brought to Alexandria under Tiberius. They bear the hieroglyphics of Thotmes III. (1500) and Rameses II. (Sesostris the Great), 1400 B.C.
  • The distance is 130 miles; time, four hours and a half, over a perfectly level country, for Cairo, 12 miles above the apex of the Delta, is only 40 feet above the sea level.
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      the traveler did not even realize that he had left Alexandria for Cairo because of the distance.
  • e "'New Hotel
  • emple, and you would not be astonished if from it issue the Caliph Haroun-al-Rasbid with his faithful Mesrour, or the very same three Calenders whose adventures are recorded in the "Arabian Nights," and I could vow that I have seen the very oil jars in which Ali-Baba's forty thieves were scalded to death. There are the same bazars, with the same little shops, mere recesses in the wall, where the merchant, sitting cross-legged, can reach without rising every shelf in his shop. There he sits all day smoking his chibook and wa
  • ge English horses and full of lovely, half-veiled, fair Circassian and Georgian women. Two mounted janizaries, with long pistols in their holsters and curved scimetars at their sides, gallop some twenty yards in front. Behind come four syces, in pairs, with cressets full of burDing light-wood, then two more syces with wands. At each side of the carriage rides a mounted eunuch, and a pair of them follow the carriage, and behind them, another couple of mounted janizaries. They pass you at full speed, the flashing of dark eyes mingling with that of diamon
  • . Just between the New Hotel and Shepherd's Hotel, in the most frequented part of the European quarter, stands a building whose history brings all the darkness of the Middle Ages in juxtaposition with modern civilization. It is a palace of Arab architecture, surrounded by a palm grove and enclosed within a lofty stone wall. In that palace, less than twenty-five years ago, lived the widowed daughter of Mohammed Ali-the widow of the famous Defterda
  • She was a beautiful and talented woman, but licentious and cruel
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      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Mohammed ali daughter which was a widow was beautiful but not only beautiful she was cruel at the same time.
  • This princess whose power at couirt was very great, was one of the chief actors in the assassination of her nephew, Abbas-Pasha, in 185
  • . It is a small city in itself, three or four times more extensive than the Tower of London. It contains a vast palace, once inhabited by Mohammed Ali, and his tomb in the mosk, which he built of Oriental alabaster and whose minarets are miracles of architectural bol
  • All the punishments were ordered by me, generally upon the reports of the native officers; and the most frequent offences were disrespect to the latter. The company officers are so little above the level of their men that they inspire but little respect. As an instance: A captain of infantry of my detachment used to come up every evening to the kitchen-tent to play checkers with my black Ntubian cook until I had him put under fifteen days' arrest for it. The punishments for officers are arrest and loss of pay. In theory, no corporal punishment can be inflicted upon a soldier; but in practice it is necessarily otherwise. On the marches the punishments consisted of from two to five dozen stripes with a rope's end. The culprit is stretched on the ground at full lerigth, on his face, and held down by a soldier at his feet and another at his head, while two sergeants administer the stripes over his clothes. This punishment is just severe enough to be effective with a people who cannot be governed without the rod;
  • ! The unequalled moon of Egypt has just risen above the Mokattan range, and its silver light mingles with the fiery glow of departing day. As you now stand nothing lies before you but the tombs of the Caliphs and the Arab cemeteries scattered in dreary ravines of yellow sand
  • It was comiposed mainly of Asiatics from the warlike tribes of Kurdistan, Circassia and Syria, and Arnauts from Albania. After the European powers checked the conquering career of Ibrahim-Pasha, the army was reduced to 40,000 men and rarely reached that number. Of late years it has varied from 30,000 to 15,000 men or less, according to the state of the treasury. Until the late reductions imposed by the Anglo-French commission, the Egyptian army consisted of 22 regiments of infantry of 3 battalions each; 4 battalions of rifles; 4 regiments of cavalry and 144 pieces of artillery. It is recruited by a totally arbitrary and irregular system of conscription. The inhabitants of Cairo and Alexandria are exempte
  • ore. I once had an orderly, a Copt Christian named Girgis, or George, about fifty-five years old. TIe said he had beeni more than twenty-five years in service and, having no friends to apply for his release, he did not know that he would ever be discharged.
  • Their white cotton uniforms (short tunics, baggy zouave trouisers, and gaiters over their substanitial army shoes) are well suited to the climate and make a very good appearance. They are exceedingly weell drilled upon the French system of tactics. The infantry are armed with the best American Remington rifles. The cavalry are extremely well mounted and equipped. The artillery are well organized and have several batteries of the best Krupp guns. The officers are thoroughly acquainted with the routine of service, but the best of them are utterly ignorant of the higher branches of military science. They, as well as their soldiers, understand perfectly all the details of military life.
  • In one word, they possess all thebest qualities of soldiers except one-the fighting quality. This probably is due in part to the oppression of centuries, the Egyptian people having beenl ruled bv a foreign conqueror for 2,400 y
  • The subordinate officers are hardly a shade better than the men, and the high Pashas think only of their ease and personal safety. At the battle of Guy Khoor, in Abyssinia, the Pashas and Colonels, with Prince Hassan at their head, led the flight before the fight had fairly begun, and when my gallant frienid General Dye, severely wounded, tried to stern the tide of the retreating troops, the soldiers said to hi
  • Egyptian army from a defeat as complete as that of Isandula, for the Abyssinians fight as desperately as the Zulus. It is true that two or three Arab officers of high rank fought bravely and were killed on the field, buit they were the exception. Ratib-Pasha, who commanded the army, saw his extreme right flank-one battalion and a battery, which he had imprudently left isolated about twelve hundred yards off-surrounded by a multitude of Abyssinians, who rushed for that ga
  • Simply because a despotic prince, however intelligent, is always deceived by falsehood and intrigue, and the Khedive has never yet known the truth about the Abyssiiiian war. The best regiments in the Egyptian service are those formed of negroes from Central Africa. These' are savages captured by slave traders and forcibly taken from them by the Government in order to destroy the slave trade. When retaken from the traders, it is impossible to send them back to their own country, for one-half of them have already died on the way and the rest would perish going back. So the Government makes soldiers of them and gives them the women as wives. Now, let m
  • from the slave traders, being marched to the barracks by an Egyptian sergeant to be enrolled-great tall fellows, emaciated by fatigue and starvation, all literally as naked as Adam before he dreamt of a fig leaf, and not wearing even a smile, and nio wonder. They were in single file, each one fastened to the next by a piece of wood about five feet long, going from the back of the neck of the front man to the throat of the next behind him. Thus they had travelled hundreds and hundreds of miles, never released for a moment except when one would drop dead by the way and would be left as food for hyenas. As soon as they are enrolled they are clothed in a good white uniform, fed on good rations of bread and meat, they who had never eaten anything but grain in its raw state, like camels. They are taught Arabic and the rudiments of t
  • We were treated with more respect than the native officers, in spite of our being Christians and foreigners.
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      l222091943 on 25 Apr 23
       
      even though there were foreigners' they were treated with a lot of respect.
  • There are also large barracks, military schools, all the bureaus of the War Department, arsenals, vast magazines, workshops and a cannon foundry. Also the famous well of Joseph, 270 feet deep, so called, not from the Joseph of Scripture, but from Saladin, whose name was Yusu
  • The line-officers, nearly all natives, did not show any dislike to the Christian staff-officers, even if they felt it. When the financial difficulties culminated in 1878, the English and French comptrollers, who had virtually assumed the government, ordered a great reduction of the army and the discharge of all the foreign officers, which resulted in the practical abolition of the staff. There were now left in the army only two elements-the native or fellah, and the Turco-Circassian. The Turks have hitherto occupied nearly all the high positions, civil and military, for they still retain their prestige as the conquerors of Egypt.
  • The ex-Khedive, IsmaYl-Pasha, was a regular purchaser of twenty or thirty of them every year. It is the highest ambition of a Circassian girl to be sold to the Sultan or some of his chief officers. If she succeeds in becoming a favorite, her brothers hasten to sbare her fortunes by obtaining civil or military appointments. This accounts for there being so many Circassians in high places in Turkey and Egypt. Ratib-Pasha, the Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian army under Ismail-Pasha, was a Cireassiani. (See Appendix A.) Until the close of the Abyssinian war, the Egyptian army seemed to be absolutely submissive to its Prince.
  • . Ismail was deposed, and Tewfik, vastly inferior in force of character, reigns in in his place. Soon-eafter his accession, a Circassian was promoted General over the heads of three native Colonels. The latter sent a protest to the Khedive, who ordered them to the citadel under arrest, but their regiments rose in arms and released them. The Khedive sent two picked regiments of his guards to overawe the mutineers, but they joined the latter and the Khedive had to yield to all their demands, to revoke the objectionable promotion and to appoint a new Minister of War. A few months later another military demonstration forced the governmenit to increase the pay of the army. And now a new rallying cry has been raised, "Egypt for the Egyptians !" Otut -with Turks and Cireassiatns! Out with foreign Comptrollers who grind out the fellaheen for the benefit of foreign bondholders! Arabi-Bey, who is the leader of the movement, is only a Colonel, but all the native regiments are under his influence, while the Turkish and Circassian pashas, unable to command the obedience of the troops, look helplessly on.* In the meantime, the Assembly of Notables, from whom no opposition was dreamed of (otherwise it never would have been called),
  • " Holy War,"
  • "Egyptian crisis," and such is the attitude of that army which in former days would have submitted to decimation without a murmur at the command of MIohammed Ali, Ibrahim-Pasha or even Ismail. It must be remembered that the soldiers are in fact the best and truest representatives of the people, from which they are drawn by conscription, and they are the most intelligent portion of the fellaheen masses, for they have acquired in the army new ideas which would nev-er have occurred to them if they had remained in their villages. It is evident that they are waking up to a sense of their power. Yet it seems most probable that bv some compromise with France, Egypt will finally become a British dependency, thus perpetuating indefinitely the subjection of the Egyptian people to a foreign conqueror.
  • The most prominent were Generals Mott, Sibley, Loring, Stone, who held the rank of Pashas (Generals); Reynolds, Dye, Field, Long, Prout, Lockett, Ward, Purdy andl Mason, who ranked as Beys or Colonels
  • te. Several of my esteemed comrades in those expeditions-Campbell, Losche, Lamnson-left their bones in the deserts of the Soudan, and others returnied with impaired constitutions.
  • The experienced old Germaln surgeon (Dr.Pfund) attached to the expedition assured me that my only hope of life was to get on a boat and float down to Cairo, and that I would certainly die if I went into the deserts. But I knew that if I tuirned back and left the expedition in charge of the native officers, they would never budge one mile from the. Nile, and the expedition, which was very costly anid important, would be a complete failure, reflecting much discredit upon the American staff. I considered it one of those cases in which a soldier must prefer his duty to his life, and I started from the Nile for the capital of Kordofan in such a helpless condition that I had, to be lifted by the soldiers on and off my dromedary.
  • l Obeyad, the capital of Kordofan, after unspeakable sufferings. There I was joined by that talented and accomplished officer, Col. H. G. Prout, to whom I turned over the comnmand. The surgeon anw everybody else gave me up to die, and I thought my days had reached their term. But I began to mend slowly, and after six months I started back for Cairo.
  • El Obeyad from Suakim on the Red Sea, where I took a steamer for Suez and thence by rail to Cairo. All the Americans except Gen. Stone are now out of the Egyptian army, but I can assert with
  • They stop every two or three hundred yards while the discordant music strikes up and a hired male dancer goes through some absurd contortions
  • e ancient Hebrews, and the manners and ideas as well as the morals of the Mussulmans, with regard to women, are very much such as pictured in Scripture of Abraham, Jacob and Judah, David and Solomon and a host of other patriarchs. Th
  • f Dr. Parsons, the American missionary, and they will never be hanged unless the United States send a squadron to require it. Our Secretary of State in his last report states that the demands of his department on this subject have been evaded.
  • f Mussulmans have but one or two wives-at one time; but divorce is accomplished with a speed and facility which leave far behind the most expeditious and liberal courts of Chicago or any other place. The wife cannot divorce her husband, nor force him to divorce her, but he has only to say "Entee talleekah "-Thou divorcedand the matrimonial bond is dissolved. He is bound only to give her the unpaid tlhird of her dower, and an alimony proportional to
  • On my second -expedition to Kordofan, one of the soldiers of my escort, rejoicing in the name of Abou-la-nane, came to me on the eve of our departure from Cairo, and stated that he had married a wife from a village far up the Nile. Would I permit him to take his wife on the boat and leave her at her village with her relatives; otherwise she would starve from misery in Cairo. This was probably a subterfuge, but I consented. Arriving at the village after several days, Abou-la-nane came and said that all his wife's relations were dead, and if she was left there she would starve more certainly than in Cairo. " Would his Excellency the Bey (that was myself) permit him to take her along?" I told him that if he did she would certainly surely die in the desert from the hardships we would
  • One night at Dongola, on the Upper Nile, after retreat, the whole camp was startled by the wails and moanings of Hafizah, the soldier's wife. He had become jealous of the attentions of the sergeant of artiller
  • The sentence was irrevocable. Fortunately theire were no witnesses, and he stoutly denied having used the triple formula, only the simple one. So they went before the cadi and got married again, and everything was altogether lovely. I may as well state here that my kitid treatment of Abou-la-nane and his wife was "bread cast on the waters." When in the heart of Kordofan, soldiers and servants were dying or prostrated by fevers, and I was at the point of death, this little weak, puny woman was never sick a day, and did all the coQking and washing at headquarters wheni no one else could be found to do it. When I was transported back to Cairo, Abou-la-nane was detailed as one of my escort, and he returned safely to Cairo with his wife. Another anecdote to illustrate inatrimonial customs: The house in which I dwelt the last four mnonths of my residence in Egypt was in Alexandria, just behind the English chuirc
  • "CHIEF OF THE EuNucHs."-A correspondent of the Allqemeine Zeitung, writing from Pera (1881), describes at length a remarkable ceremony, which seems to be curiouslv out of place in Europethe installation of the new Chief of the Eunuchs over the harem of the Sultan. It was a genuine piece of old Turkish conservatism. The name of the new " Kislar Agassi," or Head Eunueb
  • " His Excellency Belhram Aga, Chief of the Eunuchs," rode past on a magnificent charger, the orders of the Osmanie and Medschidje glittering on his breast, followed by Ahmed Bey and a number of the adjutants of the Sultan. When he arrived at the gate of the palace, lambs were slaughtered before him as a token of welcome.
  • he Sultan sent across to his new official two symbols of office, a written document and a magnificent silver pastoral staff worked in relief, which is never handled by any but the Agas of the imperial hare
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Slavery | Encyclopedia.com - 2 views

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Mbalenhle Magagula History 2A

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  • Slavery is the unconditional servitude of one individual to another. A slave is usually acquired by purchase and legally described as chattel or a tangible form of movable property. For much of human history, slavery has constituted an important dimension of social and occupational organization. The word slavery originated with the sale of Slavs to the Black Sea region during the ninth century. Slavery existed in European society until the nineteenth century, and it was the principal source of labor during the process of European colonization.
  • Some forms of slavery existed among the indigenous societies in the Americas before the arrival of Christopher Columbus. However, the reconstruction of the Americas after 1492 led to a system of slavery quite unprecedented in human experience. Slavery in the Americas was a patently artificial social and political construct, not a natural condition. It was a specific organizational response to a specific labor scarcity. African slavery in the Americas, then, was a relatively recent development in the course of human history—and quite exceptional in the universal history of slave societies.
  • Nevertheless, the first Africans who accompanied the early Spanish explorers were not all slaves. Some were free (such as Pedro Alonso Niño, who accompanied Christopher Columbus on his third voyage); and others were servants.Nuflo de Olano, who accompanied Vasco Nuñez de Balboa across the Isthmus of Panama was, however, a slave. So were Juan Valiente and several others who traveled and fought with Hernán Cortés in Mexico, or the Pizarro brothers in Peru, or Pánfilo de Narváez in Florida. Those blacks who sailed with Columbus on his first voyage to the Americas in 1492 were free men, and their descendants presumably were as free as any other Spanish colonist in the Americas. Other blacks who accompanied the early Spanish conquistadores might have been servile, but they were not true slaves as the term was later understood. Estebanico—described as "Andrés Dorantes' black Moorish slave"—accompanied Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca in his amazing journey around the Gulf of Mexico and overland across the Southwest to Mexico City in the late 1520s and 1530s. Estebanico learned several local Indian languages with consummate ease, and he posed, along with his companions, as holy men gifted with healing powers (Weber, p. 44). The chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes several "blacks" who accompanied Hernán Cortés to Mexico—one of whom brought wheat to the New World, and another (a follower of Pánfilo de Narváez) who introduced smallpox among the Indians, with lethal results (Castillo, 1979). Of the 168 men who followed Francisco Pizarro to Peru in 1532 and captured the Inca at Cajamarca, at least two were black: Juan García, born in Old Castile, served the expedition as a piper and crier, and Miguel Ruiz, born in Seville, was a part of the cavalry and probably received a double portion of the spoils, as did all those who had horses.
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  • Slavery was also a form of power relations, so slaves by and large did not have an equal voice in articulating a view of their condition. Their actions, however, spoke loudly of their innermost thoughts and represented their reflections on, and reactions to, the world in which they found themselves. Columbus thought the people he encountered in the Caribbean in 1492 might make good slaves, as he seemed to infer in his log of October 10, 1492, when he wrote: "They ought to make good and skilled servants, for they repeat very quickly whatever we say to them. I think that they can easily be made Christians, for they seem to have no religion. If it pleases Our Lord, I will take six of them to Your Highness when I depart, in order that they may learn our language" (Columbus, p. 77).
  • The transatlantic slave trade formally began in 1518, when King Charles I of Spain sanctioned the direct importation of Africans to his colonies in the Americas, finally acknowledging that the potential supply of indigenous slaves was inadequate to maintain the economic viability of his fledgling overseas colonies. Shortly thereafter, the Portuguese started to import Africans to Brazil to create a plantation society and establish an Atlantic bulwark against other Europeans intruding along the coast. As the demand for labor grew, the number of Africans imported as slaves increased, and manual labor throughout the Americas eventually became virtually synonymous with the enslavement of Africans. The transatlantic slave trade became a lucrative international enterprise, and by the time it ended, around 1870, more than ten million Africans had been forcibly transported and made slaves in the Americas. Many millions more died in Africa or at sea in transit to the Americas.
  • The slave trade responded to an interrelated series of factors operating across Africa, at the supply side, and also in the Americas, at the market level. The trade can be divided into four phases, strongly influenced by the development of colonialism throughout the hemisphere. In the first phase, lasting to about 1620, the Americas were the domain of the Spanish and the Portuguese. These Iberian powers introduced about 125,000 slaves to the Americas, with some 75,000 (or 27 percent of African slave exports of the period) to the Spanish colonies, and about 50,000 (18 percent of the trade) to Brazil. This was a relatively small flow of about 1,000 slaves per year, most of whom were supplied from Portuguese forts along the West African coast. But slavery in the towns, farms, and mines of the Americas then employed less African slaves (about 45 percent of the total Atlantic trade) than in the tropical African islands of Fernando Po and Sâo Tomé, Europe proper, or the islands of the Madeiras, Cape Verdes, and the Azores (about 55 percent of trade). Indeed, the small island of Sâo Tomé alone received more than 76,000 African slaves during the period, exceeding the entire American market.
  • The second phase of the transatlantic slave trade lasted from 1620 to about 1700 and saw the distribution of approximately 1,350,000 slaves throughout the Americas, with an additional 25,000 or so going to Europe. During this phase, the Americas became the main destination of enslaved Africans. The trade was marked by greater geographical distribution and the development of a more varied supply pattern. The European component of the trade eventually dwindled to less than 2 percent. Instead, Brazil assumed the premier position as a slave destination, receiving nearly 42 percent of all Africans sold on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean. Spanish America received about 22 percent, distributed principally in Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the Andean regions of South America. The English Caribbean colonies bought more than 263,000 slaves, or 20 percent of the volume sold in the Americas. The French Caribbean imported about 156,000 slaves, or 12 percent; and the small islands of the Dutch Caribbean bought another 40,000 slaves, or 3 percent of slaves sold throughout the Americas.
  • Even more important, slavery evolved into a complex system of labor, commerce, and society that was legally, socially, and ethnically distinct from other forms of servitude, and that was almost always applied to the condition of nonfree Africans. Two patterns of colonies developed throughout the western hemisphere: colonies designed as microcosms of European societies and colonies designed primarily for the efficient production of export commodities. The first group of colonies constituted the settler colonies. In these colonies, slaves constituted a minority of the population and did not necessarily represent the dominant labor sector. In the second group were exploitation plantation colonies, marked by their overwhelming proportion of nonfree members, and in which slavery formed the dominant labor system.
  • The period between 1701 and 1810 represented the maturation of the slave system in the Americas. This third phase witnessed the apogee of both the transatlantic slave trade and the system of American slavery. Altogether, nearly six million Africans—amounting to nearly 60 percent of the entire transatlantic slave trade—arrived in American ports. Brazil continued to be the dominant recipient country, accounting for nearly two million Africans, or 31 percent, of the trade during this period. The British Caribbean plantations (mainly on Barbados and Jamaica) received almost a million and a half slaves, accounting for 23 percent of the trade. The French Antilles (mainly Saint-Domingue on western Hispaniola, Martinique, and Guadeloupe) imported almost as many, accounting for 22 percent of the trade. The Spanish Caribbean (mainly Cuba) imported more than 500,000 slaves, or 9.6 percent of the trade. The Dutch Caribbean accounted for nearly 8 percent of the trade, but most of those slaves were re-exported to other areas of the New World. The British North American colonies imported slightly more than 300,000, or slightly less than 6 percent of the trade, while the small Danish colonies of the Caribbean bought about 25,000 slaves, a rather minuscule proportion of the slaves sold in the Americas during this period.
  • The system of slavery in the Americas was generally restrictive and harsh, but significant variations characterized the daily lives of slaves. The exhaustive demands of the plantation societies in parts of the Caribbean and Brazil, combined with skewed sexual balances among the slaves, resulted in excessively high mortality rates, unusually low fertility rates, and, consequently, a steady demand for imported Africans to maintain the required labor forces. The recovery of the indigenous populations in places such as Mexico and the Andean highlands led to the use of other systems of coerced labor, somewhat reducing the reliance on African slaves in these areas. Frontiers of grazing economies such as the llanos of Venezuela, the southern parts of Brazil, and the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay required only modest supplies of labor, so that African slaves constituted a small proportion of the local population. Only in the United States did the slave population reproduce itself dramatically over the years, supplying most of the internal demand for slave labor during the nineteenth century.In general, death rates were highest for slaves engaged in sugar production, especially on newly opened areas of the tropics, and lowest among domestic urban workers, except during periodical outbreaks of epidemic diseases.
  • The attack on the slave trade paralleled growing attacks on the system of slavery throughout the Americas. The selfdirected abolition from below that occurred in Saint-Domingue in 1793 was not repeated elsewhere, however. Instead, a combination of internal and external events eventually determined the course of abolition throughout the region. The issue of slavery became a part of the struggle for political independence for the mainland Spanish American colonies. Chile (1823), Mexico, and the new Central America States (1824), abolished slavery immediately after their wars of independence from Spain. The British government abolished slavery throughout its empire in 1834, effectively ending the institution in 1838. Uruguay legally emancipated its few remaining slaves in 1842. The French government ended slavery in the French Antilles in 1848. Colombia effectively abolished slavery in 1851, with Ecuador following in 1852, Argentina in 1853, and Peru and Venezuela in 1854. The United States of America abolished slavery after the U.S. Civil War in 1865. Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. Finally, Brazil abolished slavery in 1888.
  • Opposition to SlaveryThe eighteenth century formed the watershed in the system of American slavery. Although individuals, and even groups such as the Quakers, had always opposed slavery and the slave trade, general disapproval to the system gained strength during the later eighteenth century, primarily due to the growth of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on rationality, and British Evangelical Protestantism. Opposition to slavery became increasingly more coordinated in England, and it eventually had a profound impact, with the abolition of the English slave trade in 1807. Before that, prodded by Granville Sharp and other abolitionists, Lord Chief Justice Mansfield declared slavery illegal in Great Britain in 1772, giving enormous impetus to the British antislavery movement. The British legal ruling, in time, freed about 15,000 slaves who were then in Britain with their colonial masters, who estimated their "property loss" at approximately £700,000.
  • In 1776 the British philosopher and economist Adam Smith declared in his classic study The Wealth of Nations that the system of slavery represented an uneconomical use of land and resources, since slaves cost more to maintain than free workers. By the 1780s the British Parliament was considering a series of bills dealing with the legality of the slave trade, and several of the recently independent former North American colonies—then part of the United States of America—began to abolish slavery within their local jurisdictions. After 1808—when Great Britain and the United States legally abolished their component of the transatlantic slave trade—the English initiated a campaign to end all slave trading across the Atlantic, and to replace slave trading within Africa with other forms of legal trade. Through a series of outright bribes, diplomatic pressure, and naval blockades, the trade gradually came to an end around 1870.
  • Slavery Scholarship and the Place of the Slave in the WorldThe topic of slavery has attracted the attention of a very large number of writers. Before the 1950s, writers tended to view slavery as a monolithic institution. Then, as now, there was much discussion of slavery, and less of the slaves themselves. Standard influential American studies, such as U. B. Phillips's American Negro Slavery (1918) and Life and Labor in the Old South (1929), Kenneth M. Stampp's The Peculiar Institution (1956), and Stanley Elkins' Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (1959), misleadingly described slaves as passive participants to their own cruel denigration and outrageous exploitation. In Phillips's world, everyone was sublimely happy. In the world of Stampp and Elkins, they were not happy—but neither could they help themselves. Apparently neither Stampp nor Elkins read much outside their narrow field—or if they did, they discounted it. Certainly the then available scholarship of Eric Williams, C. L. R. James, or Elsa V. Goveia is not evident in their works. Herbert Aptheker in American Negro Slave Revolts (1943), Gunnar Myrdal in An American Dilemma (1944), and Frank Tannenbaum in Slave and Citizen (1946) had tried, in those three intellectually stimulating works, to modify the overall picture, but without much success.
  • Conditions of Slavery
  • Then, in 1956, Goveia published an outstanding book, Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands at the End of the Eighteenth Century. As Francisco Scarano notes of Goveia's work: "Goveia's sensitive and profound study of slave society in the British Leewards … is doubtless one of the great works of Caribbean history in any language. The Guyanese historian revealed the ways in which, in a racialized slave society, the imperative of slave subordination permeated all contexts of social interaction, from legal system to education and from religion to leisure. Everything was predicated on the violence necessary to maintain slavocratic order" (Scarano, p. 260). Goveia's approach inculcated the slaves with agency, a fundamental quality of which earlier writers seemed incredibly unaware. Slaves continuously acted in, as well as reacted to, the world in which they existed.
  • But slavery was not only attacked from above. At the same time that European governments contemplated administrative measures against slavery and the slave trade, the implacable opposition of the enslaved in the overseas colonies increased the overall costs of maintaining the system of slavery. Slave revolts, conspiracies, and rumors of revolts engendered widespread fear among owners and administrators. Small bands of runaway slaves formed stable black communities, legally recognized by their imperial powers in difficult geographical locations such as Esmeraldas in Ecuador, the Colombian coastal areas, Palmares in Brazil, and in the impenetrable mountains of Jamaica. Then, in 1791, the slaves of Saint-Domingue/Haiti, taking their cue somewhat from the French Revolution, staged a successful revolt under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture (1743–1803) and a number of other local leaders. The radical French commissioner in the colony, Léger Félicité Sonthonax (1763–1813) saw the futility of trying to defeat the local revolt and declared the emancipation of all slaves and their immediate admission to full citizenship (1793), a move ratified the following year by
  • French colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte revoked the decree of emancipation in 1802, but he failed to make it stick in Saint-Domingue, where the former slaves and their free colored allies declared the independence of Haiti—the second free state in the Americas—in 1804.The fourth and final phase of the transatlantic trade lasted from about 1810 to 1870. During that phase approximately two million Africans were sold as slaves in a greatly reduced area of the Americas. With its trade legal until 1850, Brazil imported some 1,145,400 Africans, or about 60 percent of all slaves sold in the Americas after 1810. The Spanish Antilles—mainly Cuba and Puerto Rico—imported more than 600,000 Africans (32 percent), the great majority of them illegally introduced to Cuba after an Anglo-Spanish treaty to abolish the Spanish
  • he revolutionary government in Paris, which extended the emancipation to all
nokubonga1219

The Indian Ocean in Transatlantic Slavery.pdf - 1 views

Nokubonga Masuku

shared by nokubonga1219 on 21 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Voyages
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      voyages are long journeys that involves travelling by sea or by in space ( in this content it will be by sea because slaves were transported by through the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
  • Given the lack of source material for slave trading in the ocean, scholars have been forced to focus on the carrying capacity of the trade from specific regions throughout the Indian Ocean. These numbers are based primarily on nineteenth-century British abolitionist observations estimating the overall size of regional trade. 6
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      since there was lack of source material for slave trading in the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean, scholars were forced to focus on carrying a measured volume of the trade from different places pass the Indian Ocean .
  • Despite the connections between the two trades, one within the Indian Ocean and the other in the Atlantic, we must be constantly aware of the major differences between the two, most notably that both European and non-European slave-owning societies throughout the Indian Ocean region relied upon slaves from Asia, not upon those from Southeast Africa.
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      even though the two trades had connections which was within the Indian Ocean and others in the Atlantic Ocean, there were major differences, particularly the European and non-European slave owners in the Indian Ocean part depended mostly upon slaves from Asia and not those from Southeast Africa.
  • ...6 more annotations...
  • Second, given the local exchanges operating around the Mozambique Channel and within East Africa, we cannot be entirely sure of the origins of slaves within the region.
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Given the local exchange operating around Mozambique and East of Africa it is not clearly were slave trade started within this regions..
  • venture. The first slaves entering the Atlantic from the Indian Ocean were probably taken to St Helena by English East India Company vessels.
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      the first slaves that entered the Atlantic were taken to St Helena by English East India company vessels .
  • Figure 1. Captives carried off from Southeast Africa for the Americas by decade, 1624–1860. Source: Voyages, http://www.slavevoyages.org(accessed July 24, 2012).
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      below is a graph showing the time profile departure of almost 543 000 people who it was estimated that they had embarked o slave vessels i Southeast Africa for Americans in the years between 1624 and 1860.
  • The French also frequently conflated slaves from the Swahili coast with those from elsewhere in East Africa. 15 This confusion further complicates our understanding of the traffic from the Mascarene Islands to the Americas. Finally, given the relatively little research on the slave
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      France also rapidly mixed-up slaves from the Swahili coast with those from other places in the East of Africa .
  • For centuries, dhows had carried small numbers of slaves from many sources to a variety of markets all around the Indian Ocean. By the nineteenth century, these
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      small numbers of slaves were carried by dhow to different markets around the Indian Ocean.
  • Northeast Africa sent no slaves to the Americas. Madagascar was briefly important in the seventeenth century, as the numbers leaving the island for the Americas amounted to an estimated one-fifth of the relative few slaves traded in the Indian Ocean in that early period
    • nokubonga1219
      nokubonga1219 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Northeast Africa did not send slaves to the Americas
naicker222027679

The ancient civilisation, trade, and commerce of Eastern Africa - 7 views

www.tandfonline.com/...14702548608555255

Xantia Naicker History 2A

shared by naicker222027679 on 16 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • when invited to address the Geographical Society of this great city, I felt it a high honour, and gladly accepted the invita- tion.
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      the writer felt honoured to have been invited to the event to talk about the geographical society
  • perplexed
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      to be unsure about something
  • To repeat one's- self again and again is to confess to a sad lack of fertility
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      do not repeat yourself it causes bad luck
  • ...18 more annotations...
  • Ancient Civilisation
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      civilisation of the oldest days
  • Eastern Africa."
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      east part of africa
  • theoretically
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      something that has been proven
  • practically useful
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      something that can be done practically
  • ancient activity
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      activities that were done in the past
  • To many of you, I have no doubt, there will be no more interesting point in connection with East Africa
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      the speaker spoke about the fact time many were doubting that there will be no connection with East Africa.
  • Respecting the origin of these cities there has been plentiful specula- tion.
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      speculations were made regarding the origins of the cities.
  • The absence of all clue to their origin, together with the fact that the ruins are situated in the heart of the country reported by the natives to be the richest of all South Africa in gold, and the discovery of old surface gold mines in the district in which they stand, have not tended to diminish speculation regarding them.
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      clues are not there about the origins of the country of South Africa in relation to gold
  • enumerated,
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      affected by strong feelings of love, admiration, or fascination.
  • archmological
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      the scientific study of material remains (such as tools, pottery, jewelry, stone walls, and monuments) of past human life and activities
  • archaeo- logists to determine.
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      archaeologists are people that discover things of the past and determine if they are true.
  • practical reasons.
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      reasons that can be seen
  • I believe we may conclude that it formed in ancient days one of the sources of the supply of gold
    • mercymmadibe071
      mercymmadibe071 on 16 Apr 23
       
      sources of gold were concluded in the ancient days.
  • s of brass; slaves, horses, mules; carpets, ivory,
  • ory, cheap and very abundant, rhinoceros horns, tortoise-shell, superior to any on the coast, and nauTlius,"--of the nature of which we are ignorant
  • Silver, tin, lead, and vessels of brass; slaves, horses, mules; carpets, ivory, ebony; pearls and silks; wheat, barley, honey, oil, and gums; wine, wool, and iron, were chief amongst the products which were carried to Tyre by sea or to its fairs by
  • frica would be as their native seas ? Much that the Arabian needed, his "durra," rice, ivory, and more especially his slaves, could only have been obtained from Eastern Africa, and we have every reason to believe that from the earliest ages he formed settlements there, and traded with African tribes for these articles and for gold
  • Ivory, brought in great quantities from the interior, rhinoceros horns, gold, and tortoise-shells from the East African coast.
  • ujhistprof on 18 May 23
     
    not historical
asandandulwini

Eastern Route to Central Africa (T & F).pdf - 1 views

Asanda Ndulwini

shared by asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Currie's Castle Line of steamers takes us in six weeks to the Portu- guese town of Quilimane. This town is still often described as at the mouth of the Zambesi, but this is incorrect. That river discharges itself into the sea by three principal mouths, the most southerly of which, the Kongoni, is generally considered the best. Quilimane is situated 70 miles north of this mouth, on the Quilimane or Kwakwa River, as it is called at different parts of its course.
    • asandandulwini
      asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23
       
      Quilimane was a seaport in Mazombique. It was the administration capital of the Zambezia province and the province's largest city and stands 25 km from the river of the Good Signs.
  • Fevers in this part of Africa seem to be inevitable, but often pass away as quickly as they come. If, however, complications arise, they prove very dangerous. I remember Shimwara, a few miles up the river, as the place where I most nearly succumbed. Providentially, I had been met a few days previously by a medical missionary, Dr. Laws, who nursed me through days of unconsciousness and months of subsequent weakness ; and I recovered.
    • asandandulwini
      asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23
       
      This is derived from the fact that, before the exploration of outsiders, people of Africa didn't take note of diseases from the lakes. And that led to diseases like Diarrhoea. And that was one of the reason intellectuals and doctors came to help Africans whilst other came to control.
  • At the Portuguese custom-house, a few miles from the confluence, Morumbala, a noble mountain, towers above the nearer Chingachinga Hills, but the river makes considerable detours ere its base is reached. After the dreary monotony of the plain, the change to this scenery of hill and burn is most refreshing, as is also the clear cold stream water that flows from the heights into the warmer Shir6.
    • asandandulwini
      asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23
       
      Mount Morrumbala's montane forests are an inland enclave of the Southern Zanzibar Inhamabene coastal forest mosaic ecoregion, which extends along the more humid coast.
  • ...5 more annotations...
  • culminate
    • asandandulwini
      asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23
       
      Culminate- Means reaching a climax or point of highest development.
  • Portuguese traders at Mpassas and Shame were killed, and their stores carried off; the custom-house was broken into and cleared; the French factory at Shimwara, and Dutch barges in transit, and some of our boats were looted
  • miniature dandelion,
    • asandandulwini
      asandandulwini on 26 Apr 23
       
      These were plants discovered near the sea/coastal ridge.
  • Passing three small villages, at any of which water can be had or a halt made, we reach the Company's head station, ~ Mandala. The situation is central, communication frequent, both towards the coast and inland. It is also healthy, being at an altitude of about 3500 feet. Situated a mile to the north is the flourishing Blantyre Mission.
  • Last July (1884) they made another raid, and overran the whole country, with the excep- tion of the British settlements. With the whites they declared they had no quarrel, and carried out this policy so far as to send back carriers whom they had captured returning from the river, so soon as they learned they were in our employ.
katlegomodiba

An Ascent of Kilimanjaro.pdf - 1 views

Katlego Modiba History 2A

shared by katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Read at the Meeting of the Society, 27 November 1922. SINCE Africa's highest mountain was first seen and approached by Rebmann in 1848, and since Sir Harry Johnston's pioneer work on the upper slopes in 1884, eighteen men and at least one lady had reached the icy rim of the great crater on its summit. The first Englishman to climb to the top was Mr. W. C. West, of Capetown, whose ascent was accomplished in June 1914. Dr. Foerster, a German settler at Moshi,
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      this is a journal article by C. Gillman about some expedition in Mount Kilimanjaro. The writer describes the mount Kilimanjaro and how it was and the conditions there.
  • NCE Africa's highest mountain was first seen and approached by Rebmann in 1848,
  • on the upper slopes in 1884, e
  • ...50 more annotations...
  • t Englishman to climb to the top was Mr. W. C. West, of Capetown, whose ascent was accomplished in June 1914. D
  • anjaro, and t
  • anjaro, and th
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      Mount Kilimanjaro is located in the country Tanzania which in the Eastern part of the continent Africa. Kilimanjaro is one of Africa's tallest mountains at about 5, 895 meters and 19,340 feet. Many explorers, explored this mountain because it is well known in Africa and this mount changed how many explorers viewed Africa, it is well known that most Europeans viewed Africa as a continent that is
  • AN ASCENT OF KILIMANJARO 3 line 5200 metres above the surrounding plains (800 metres) to the summit of Kibo (5930
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      Of course, many of the tallest mountains in the world and a number of volcanoes on the central and South American plateaus are higher than Kilimanjaro at sea level, but their bases, whether mountain chains or plateaus, are already at a significant altitude, whereas here the slopes rise uninterruptedly for 5,200 meters above plains below(800 meters) to the summit of Kibo.
  • ly ste
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      a summit can be described as the highest point of a hill or a mountain.
  • y ste
  • aphical base to the top. Many peaks of the world's big fold mountains, several volcanoes on the Central and South American plateaus are of course actually higher above sea-level than Kilimanjaro, but their base, be it a chain or a plateau, lies already at a considerable altitude, whilst here t
  • AN ASCENT OF KILIMANJARO 3 line 5200 metres above the surrounding plains (800 metres) to the summit of Kibo (5930
  • bove. From a base about 80 kms. in diameter, the slopes rise very gently at first, and, gradually steepening towards the summit, produce that slightly concave outline so characteristic of Kilimanjaro and of strato-volcanoes generally, and indicating the fact that the earlier lavas have been poured out in a much more liquid state than the younger ones, which were m
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The slopes rise very gently at first, gradually steepening towards the summit to create that slightly concave outline so distinctive of Kilimanjaro and of strato-volcanoes generally, and indicating that older lavas have been poured out in a much more liquid state than the younger ones, which were more viscous. The slopes begin at a base that is about 80 km in diameter.
  • -volcano. The three cones whose centres of eruption lie on an almost straight line running west to east, are Shira in the west, Kibo in the centre, and Mavenzi in the east. Shira, the oldest, 4000 metres high, is to-day only a ruin with the remains of its former crater-wall forming a ragged more or less horizontal spur protruding from the western slope of its
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The three cones are namely Shira, Kibo and Mavenzi. Shira is the oldest and is only 4000 meters high, while Mvenzi is only 5270 meters high and Kibo is the highest with 5930 meters high.
  • Structurally Kilimanjaro consists of three single strato-volcanoes, each of which has had its own
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      Here the writer simply tells us that mount Kilimanjaro is made up three separate starti-volcanoes and each have their own history and origin
  • eighbour. The second in age is Mavenzi, 5270 metres high, whose former crater, though much destroyed by erosion, is still well recognizable and opens by two deep barrancos towards the north-east. The centre is taken up by Kibo, 5930 metres, the youngest and highest of the three component volcanoes, and the only one which still shows an intact crater and a perpetu
  • rin
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Kibo summit is the highest point of climbing Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania located in the mountain's arctic zone.
  • called Sa
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least on side. Plateaus occur on every continent and take up a third of the Earth's land.
  • tless small parasitic cones the .middle and lower slopes of the main massif. One of these cones, right down at the foot of the mountain in its south-east corner, has a large crater fllled by the beautiful emerald-green waters of lake Chala.
  • limatic features of Kilimanjaro are determined by three main factors: (1) the mountain's position in the equatorial region of continuous trade winds; (2) the isolation of a huge mass of rock rising from a level plain; and (3) the great height above this plain which brings the upper regions of the mountain well within the zone of the anti-tr
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      Anti-trades are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. They are also called westerlies.
  • ins. The results are ascending winds during the day and descending winds at night, the mountain winds being stronger over the southern than over the n
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      This are the results of trades that bring vapour from the Indian Ocean that blows and that's what happens as soon as they approach the mountain.
  • slopes, because the former, being less steep than the latter, are more extended and therefore the air-column influenced by them much larger. It is these mountain winds which, by altering the horizontal direction of the trade as it strikes Kilimanjar
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The daily cycle is controlled by the mountain's winds, which change the trade's horizontal direction as it approaches Kilimanjaro.
  • slopes, because the former, being less steep than the latter, are more extended and therefore the air-column inf
  • alt
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      it is difficult to understand this word, so it makes the whole sentence not to be understandable.
  • opes, to arctic
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      the weather there is drier, with less snow in the winter and sunny summer days
  • o well dis
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      discernible means to be visible or noticeable.
  • KILIMANJARO FROM THE NORTH-EA
  • KILIMANJARO FROM THE NORTH-EAST
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      This picture shows how the mount Kilimanjaro looks like when one is viewing it from the north-east side. its a picture by C. Dundas
  • MAVENZI AND THE SADDLE PLATEAU FROM THE CAVE ON KIB
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      A picture of how Mavenzi summit and saddle plateau looks like
  • n the surrounding plains and on the lower slopes up to 1100 metres, xerophile grass- and bush-steppe. (2) From 1100 to 1800 metres, a broad belt of agricultural land from which the original vegetation?lower tropical rain-forest?has been largely exterminated by man. The rainfall averages 1 metre. (3) The forest belt between 1800 and 3000, with its two subdivisions of upper tropical rain-forest and temperate mountain rainforest, and an annual rainfall of from 2 to 3 metres. (4) The alpine grass and shrub vegetation from 3000 to 4400 metres, with a rainfall of less than 1 metre; and finally, (5) The alpine desert, where lichens are the only plant form that can subsist, on the whole extremely dry and with all precipitations falling in the shape of snow o
  • the surrounding plains and on the lower slopes up to 1100 metres, xerophile grass- and bush-steppe. (2) From 1100 to 1800 metres, a broad belt of agricultural land from which the original vegetation?lower tropical rain-forest?has been largely exterminated by man. The rainfall averages 1 metre. (3) The forest belt between 1800 and 3000, with its two subdivisions of upper tropical rain-forest and temperate mountain rainforest, and an annual rainfall of from 2 to 3 metres. (4) The alpine grass and shrub vegetation from 3000 to 4400 metres, with a rainfall of less than 1 metre; and finally, (5) The alpine desert, where lichens are the only plant form that can subsist, on the whole extremely dry and with all precipitations falling in the shape of snow or
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is something interesting about the explorers who were able to identify the five zones of Kilimanjaro and the meters they all have.
  • ent-da
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      A glacier is a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow on Mountains. glaciers were found in summit Kibo all present day.
  • n or meteorological con
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      meteorological conditions are determined by the wind velocity and direction, the air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure and the stabilityy class.
  • a peculia
  • Kibo, however, shows a peculiarity, unique as far as our knowledge goes, in that its large central crater forms an island-like region of fusion, interrupting the region of feeding, t
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      peculiarity is a strange or unusual feature or habit
  • l
  • latter thus being of annular shape and enclosing a dischargeless glacier ar
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The summit Kibo exhibits a characteristic that is unique to our knot in that its massive center crater divides the feeding zone into an island-like region of fusion and an annular region that is surrounded by a discharge-free glacier area.
  • ior Commissioner of Moshi, Messrs. P. Nason and F. J. Miller, and myself. The first day's march of seven hours took us through cultivated Chaga Land in an easterly direction to the little kingdom of Marang'u, which had supplied the porters for most of the former expeditions, and whence a good path leads through the forest belt. This march across the lower slopes of the mountain entailed a good many ups and downs caused by the deeply eroded radial valleys, but it also afforded us a fair insight into the life of a most interesting people. Nowhere in East Africa have I seen anything approaching the high standard of culture that is exhibited by the sturdy inhabitants of the cultivated zone of Kilimanjaro
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      the mountain was fascinating
  • little chieftaincies
  • Grouped together in a number of little chieftaincies, the Wachaga are certainly a happy blend of the agricultural Bantu and the Hamitic herdsman. This is very probably due to the initiative of powerful and despotic rulers who, by imposing their will, led the masses to more intensive labour and thus to higher forms of civilization, and have understood how to make the best of the very favourable conditions which the well-watered mountain
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The explorers viewed the Wachagga as unquestionably a successful fusion of the agricultural Bantu and the Hamitic herdsman, grouped together in a number of small chieftaincies. This is very likely a result of the initiative of strong, despotic rulers who, by imposing their will, drove the populace toward more intense labour and, consequently, toward higher forms of civilization, and who also knew how to make the most of the favorable conditions that the well-watered mountain sloped offered. it is interesting that the slopes are watered
  • o abe
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      abeyance means a state of temporary disuse or suspension
  • rd but healthy work are well built, sturdy, and tough. To see their women balancing huge bundles of thatch descend along a steep and slippery path, slim and erect, is a fine sight. And as to the men, our porters gave a good exhibition of their staying powe
  • tropical forest, we rested on the lowest patch of grass at about 2000 metres. A further climb of a little more than an hour took us through the temperate rain-forest to the lowest of Dr. Foerster's huts (2730 metres), which we reached soon after noo
  • e advantages of the cool dark shade. It probably requires the trained eye of the botanist to distinguish between the lower and upper tropical rain-forest. As far as I could see they both agree in their main characteristics, i.e. tall trees growing out into the light from a dense undergrowth, and large smooth shiny leaves adapted to a highly increased transpira
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      It was difficult for explorers to distinguish the difference between the lower and upper tropical forest because they had similar features
  • The abundance of moisture with which the plants have to deal during most of the year up there in the mean altitude of the daily mists is aggravated by the comparative coolness of the climate. Mere enlarging of the transpiring leaf surface and the tropical devices for letting the water drip off no longer suffice. Other means had to be developed to deal with the altered environment. The leaves again become smaller and are often covered with thin hair, which, while allowing the surplus water to drip off easily, may also be regarded as pro
  • ht and heat there. The uppermost portion of the temperate forest consists almost entirely of tree-heather growing to a height of io to 15 metres. A most curious fact, and one which requires further investigation, is the absence of that bamboo belt which is found everywhere in East Africa above the rain-forest and, according to Uhlig, is particularly well developed on Mount Meru, only some 80 miles distant from
  • I wish to add a few words on the economic function of the forest be
  • he agriculture of the Wachaga, and with it their further progress towards civilization, but also the development of the European plantations in the lower regions of Kilimanjaro, depend in the first instance on that continuous and ample supply of water which the mountain guarantees them. It seems, therefore, of the utmost importance to understand clearly the agencies which influence this life-spending ele
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      The mountain supplies the lower regions plantations of the Europeans with water. The question is why can't they just get water from rivers or even from the rainfall?
  • e perennial stre
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      perennial streams are streams that have continuous flow of surface water throughout the year in at least parts of its catchment during seasons of normal rainfall
  • usal n
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      a central or focal point
  • But the meteorological conditions of the mountain are such that a considerable portion of the vapour-laden atmosphere reaches the
  • regions above the forest before condensation has taken place, and the same is the ease with most of the moisture which the forest plants them? selves exhale again in the course
  • regions above the forest before condensation has taken place, and the same is the ease with most of the moisture which the forest plants them? selves exhale again in the cours
    • katlegomodiba
      katlegomodiba on 25 Apr 23
       
      Did the explorers actually watch everything that happened in the mountains
  • d awa
kwanelealicia

WO 106/6135: South Africa: Orange River Free State and Griqualand West - Document - Nin... - 5 views

go.gale.com/...retrieve.do

Kwanele Buthelezi History 2A

shared by kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • The Orange Free State
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Orange Free State was a Boer republic in southern Africa. The Boers, of Dutch ancestry, had settled the area earlier in the nineteenth century. The 1854 Bloemfontein Convention recognized the independence of the Orange Free State, which was located between the Orange and the Vaal Rivers.
  • To the action of running water the diamond-bearing drifts of the Vaal River are referable.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The gemstone-bearing floats of the Vaal River in South Africa can be attributed to the flow of water.
  • Occasionally there are undula¬ tions, and in some parts conical hills, the sides of. which are covered with large and rounded stones. Very little wood or bush appears anywhere except along the winding river lines.t Hilly, therefore, as is the whole extent of the eastern frontier, the entire country slopes away to low unbroken levels on the west, thus materially modifying not only the physical features, but productions and climate
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The author states that occasionally there are undulations, and in some part's conical hills, the sides of which are covered with large and rounded stones. Very little wood or bush appears anywhere except along the winding river lines.t Hilly, therefore, as is the whole extent of the eastern frontier, the entire country slopes away to low unbroken levels on the west, thus materially modifying not only the physical features, but productions and climate.
  • ...21 more annotations...
  • Griqualand West
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Griqualand West is an area of N South Africa, north of the Orange river, settled after 1803 by the Griquas; annexed by the British in 1871 following a dispute with the Orange Free State; became part of the Cape Colony in 1880.
  • They are of two dates. The older one, apparently Postpliocene, occurs at a higher level than the other, as outliers along the present valley (its present posi¬ tion) indicate that the Vaal has deepened its course since the old drift was deposited." Dunn's Geological Map of South Africa gives some further information concerning this country.* From this it appears that the western half of the Orange River Free State, a line being drawn north and south a little east of Bloemfontein, is classified as " Upper Karroo Beds. " Triassic. " Mesozooic." The eastern half is designated " Stormberg Beds, Coal-bearing. " Triassic. " Mesozooic.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Two dates are involved. As outliers along the existing valley (its present position) suggest that the Vaal has deepened its course after the old drift was deposited, the older one, likely Postpliocene, appears at a higher level than the other. Additional details about South Africa are provided by Dunn's Geological Map of that nation. This suggests that the western part of the Orange River Free State, which can be divided into north and south by a line drawn a little east of Bloemfontein, is referred to as the "Upper Karroo Beds." Mesozoic. Triassic. The eastern portion is referred to as "Stormberg Beds, Coal-bearing." Mesozoic. Triassic.
  • The Stormbsrg Range, in the Cape Colony, acts in the same way on the southern side of the plateau ; while to the north-west and on the west are the arid and sunburnt wastes of the Kalahari Desert. One result of this environment is the frequency of droughts ; another is the suitability of climate to especial forms of chest disease
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      New interesting information
  • rivulets
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      A rivulet is a small stream.
  • Transvaal
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The name "Transvaal" refers to the province's geographical location to the north of the Vaal River
  • The aspect of the Orange State is not, however, by any means that of a waste desert, worthless and unproductive. Many of the mountains are of that peculiar formation in which small fountains gush out about half-way down their slopes, and the water gradually spreads to the right and the left in small gentle
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      By no means, however, does the Orange State have the image of a waste desert that is useless and unproductive. Many of the mountains have an unusual formation whereby small fountains spring up about halfway downward their slopes, and their water then spreads gradually to the right and left in small, gentle rivulets until, at the base, all of the excess water is combined and improves the whole region around it.
  • The Free State contains an area of about 70,000 square miles. It is about 300 miles from the southernmost bend of the Orange River to the point in the north at wiiich the Klip River runs into the Vaal, and about 250 miles from Jacob's Drift on the west, across which Griqualand Weet is entered, to Bezui- denhout's Pass on the east, which is one of the gateways into Natal.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Author describes The Free State as an area of around 70,000 square kilometers. The distance between the southernmost bend of the Orange River and the northernmost point where the Klip River enters the Vaal is about 300 miles, and the distance between Jacob's Drift on the west, through which Griqualand Wet is entered, and Bezuidenhout's Pass on the east, one of the entryways into Natal, is about 250 miles.
  • is divided into 13 districts, as follows :— t 1. Bloemfontein, —Chief town, Bloemfontein, capital of the State, and seat of Government. 2. Boshof. —Chief town, Boshof, of western frontier. 3. Winhurg. —Chief town, Winburg, 60 miles north-east of Bloemfontein. 4. Kronstadt. —Chief town, Kronstadt, half-way between Winburg and the Transvaal boundary. 5. Smitlifield. —Chief town, Smithfield, about 20 miles north of Aliwal North, Reddesberg (between Smithfield and Bloem¬ fontein. 6. Rouxville. —[Not marked on any map,] Chief town, Wepener, between Caledon River and eastern frontier. 7. Harry smith. —Chief town, Harrysmith, close to the Natal border. 8. Bethlehem.— Chief town, Bethlehem, 80 miles east of Winburg, and between Winburg and the Natal frontier. 9. Fauresmith. —Chief town, Fauresmith, south-west of Bloemfontein, and half-way between it and the Orange River. 10. PhilUpolù. — ("hief town, Phillipolis, north of the Orange River (20 miles) on the ( 'elesberg-Bloemfontein route. 11. Betkulie. —Chief town, Bethulie, on the Orange River, near the junction of the Caledon River.,
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Orange Free State is divided into 13 districts, as follows: 1. Bloemfontein, which serves as the state capital and government seat. 2. Boshof. The western frontier's chief town is called Boshof. 3. Winhurg. The chief town of Winburg is located 60 kilometers to the northeast of Bloemfontein. 4. Kronstadt, which is the principal town and located halfway between Winburg and the Transvaal border. 5. Smitlifield. Chief town in Smithfield, Reddesberg, located between Smithfield and Bloem fontein, about 20 miles north of Aliwal North. Rouxville, 6.Wepener is the main town between the Caledon River and the eastern border. 7. Harry Smith. Harrysmith is a main town near the Natal border. 8. Bethlehem. The main city of Bethlehem is located 80 miles east of Winburg and halfway between Winburg and the Natal border. 9. Fauresmith, which is the town's major location and is southwest of Bloemfontein, 10. phillipolis, 11. Bethulie, 12. Jacobsdal and 13. Lady Brand.
  • The air of the Free State is remarkable for its dryness
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      How so?
  • The "Flats" of the Free State are cha: ic features of the,. called " Quatlamba" or " Kathlamba
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Interesting
  • sanatorium
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      an establishment for the medical treatment of people who are convalescing or have a chronic illness.
  • Here the vegetation bears an appearance of the richest, rankest kind. From the various points from whence the streams originate the inhabitants commence cultivation, and the district is thick with com and other agricultural produce
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The vegetation appears to be of the richest, vilest variety here. The locals start farming at the numerous spots where the streams emerge, and the area is abundant in com and other agricultural products.
  • Dr. J. A. Ross, late Physician to the Newrý Infirmary, who has published the results of his inquiries, says, "I have a strong feeling in favoni· of South Africa. I know what good has been effected by it
  • The State is an oval in shape, and nearly 1,000 miles in circumference. Its nearest peint to the Indian Ocean is ata distance of 150 miles. The point at which the Orange River leaves the above territory is, in a direct line, about 500 miles from the Atlantic Ocean.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Description of the structure of the Free state.
  • The Free State is almost surrounded by rivers. The Klip, a little tributary of the Vaal, the Vaal§ itself, the Orange,|| and the Caledon, form quite five-sixths of its boundary line
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Rivers almost completely encircle the Free State. A tiny tributary of the Vaal named the Klip, along with the Vaal itself, the Orange, and the Caledon, make up around five-sixths of its border.
  • Europeans who have resided in the Cape Colony speak highly of its climate; yet the colonists themselves consider the Free State much superior, and send their invalids there.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Even if the colonists themselves think the Free State is far preferable and send their invalids there, Europeans who have lived in the Cape Colony praise its climate.
  • The Free State is part of the table-land of southern Africa
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is new interesting information to me.
  • The proximity of the State to the tropics secures for it a tropical degree of warmth, which, however, is so tempered by winds and by the elevation of the country above the level of the sea, that the effect of the heat is not of a paralyzing nature
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The State enjoys a tropical degree of temperature thanks to its proximity to the tropics; the effect of the heat is not paralyzing, though, thanks to the country's elevation above sea level and the prevailing breezes, which also help to moderate the heat.
  • The seasons date conversely to the corresponding periods in England. For instance, the summer begins in October, and ends in March ; the winter is the dry season, the Slimmer the wet. Owing to the latitude there is comparatively little difierence in the length of the days, the longest day being about 14 hours in duration and the shortest 10.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      New interesting information
  • until at the base the whole of the surplus water is united, and enriches the entire surrounding country
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      continuation from the yellow highlight, I could not highlight the entire paragraph because of the blue sticky note.
  • For a considerable distance along both banks of the above- mentioned rivers there are broad belts of sweet grass, which, on the Modder especially, alternate with low bushes,1T mimosas, and a species of bastard ebony.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Broad bands of pleasant greenery, particularly on the Modder, overlap among low shrubs, mimosas, and a kind of bastard ebony for considerable length along both banks of the aforementioned rivers.
  • kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
     
    This article was printed for H.M Stationary office, by Harrison and Sons, ST. Martins Lane in 1878.
  • kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
     
    Page 1-18 only.
sinqobile

East Africa Between the Zambezi and the Rovuma Rivers Its People Riches and Development... - 2 views

Sinqobile Mbutsi History 2A

shared by sinqobile on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • sinqobile on 25 Apr 23
     
    N.B: These are my sticky notes for my annotated work. Yellow: Sir Bartle states in the article states that he has not visited the coast of Zanzibar, which is in Mozambique (East Africa), after his late scenes of labor in slavery, mainly because of several reasons, such as the consensus that was not met that encountered for the suppression of the sea borne slave traffic. Green: The author reveals that the slave market was dominantly controlled by the English cathedral church. This church was at its peak regards to their activities in the slave trade in East Africa. Blue: The source points that Sir Bartle Frere was appointed to H.M.S London, where he took control for 3 years in his role. He dealt with obstacles that hindered the shipment of his slaves in Zanzibar and Pemba channels. He done this by learning the coast language and by familiarizing himself with the slave in the coast. Red: The Source states that the geographical map of Mozambique was written "Makua's country", which was the ruler of Mozambique who was against the slave trade on the coast. Consequently, the geographical map of Mozambique supported the schemes of the suppression of the slave trade from Rovuma to Zanzibar and between Lake Shirwa and the coast.
nompilomkhize

Revisiting Slavery and the Slave Trade in Ethiopia.pdf - 1 views

Nompilo Mkhize 222027454

shared by nompilomkhize on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • 25 Ethiopia connected the Nile Valley with the maritime space and was a hub for the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean trades, and for the Ottoman world. There were three main outlets for slaves in Ethiopia: Mätämma on the Sudanese border, Massawa catering for the Red Sea trade, and Taǧ ū ra for the Indian Ocean. 26
    • nompilomkhize
      nompilomkhize on 26 Apr 23
       
      This information informs us about the involvement of Ethiopia in the Indian Ocean Slave trade. It explains to us how Ethiopia participated in Slavery and slave trade by providing hubs for the transportation of the slaves that would come from East Africa and travel via the Indian Ocean route.
  • Child tributes were levied on lesser landlords of the region, and on the subordinate peasant population unable to pay tax in another form. 43 With the center demanding all sorts of tributes, šayḫ Ḫ waǧ alī increasingly raided the population, and he “revived the slave raiding and hunting, and gold mining using slave labor . ” 44
    • nompilomkhize
      nompilomkhize on 26 Apr 23
       
      It is elaborated that not only did Ethiopia participate in the global slave trade but it also practiced slavery locally by enslaving children who were traded by their families who could not pay taxes. Ethiopia used those children along with other men and women to do domestic labor for the Royals, economic activities( gold mining and cultivation)
  • Ǧ imma was not based on “tolls and dues” from the slave trade, but instead that “slavery, as opposed to the slave trade, could be said to have occupied a crucial position in the economic system of the kingdom.” 5 1 He characterizes Ǧ imma as a slave economy, “in which slave labor signifijicantly afffects the production process.” 5
    • nompilomkhize
      nompilomkhize on 26 Apr 23
       
      This extract informs us that some villages in Ethiopia such as the Gimma village did not rely on trading slaves to other country but they relied in slavery because they used the slaves as laborers to produce in the country and strengthen the economy of Ethiopia. Slavery benefited the economy of Ethiopia because the slaves were efficient and low cost labor which meant that costs of production would be low and the country would make more revenue out of the economic activities that were performed and in that was the economy was stimulated by slavery.
  • ...1 more annotation...
  • Black intellectuals and activists in the Americas rejected the idea of slavery existing in Ethiopia: Ethiopia, the beacon of Pan-Africanism and the archetype of many black identities could not be a slave society. 83 Sla very must belong only to European imperialism and the American plantations, and not to this territory, royalty, and lineage enshrined in the Bible. Following that logic, Ethiopia, a state that promoted and hosted the foundation of the Organization of African Unity in 1963, could not be associated with issues of servitude and exclusion. Even in the 1980s, when a military junta ruled the Ethiopian state, the Därg gave much attention to the tyranny of the former regime, and radically transformed the system of land tenure, but the complexities of local slaving societies were overshadowed by the “national question” and the liberation of cultures from the feudal order. Class distinctions as well as political afffijiliations obstructed the discussion on slavery. Ethiopian intellectuals, who have so often been at the forefront of social and political change, seem to be still refusing the idea that slavery
    • nompilomkhize
      nompilomkhize on 26 Apr 23
       
      This paragraph conveys that Ethiopia was not meant to have participated or have been involved in stimulating slave trade from the on going because Ethiopia was the learner of the Organization of African Unity therefore it was supposed to have been African representatives and fight against African enslavement instead of acting as a mediator of the global trade slave. It further explains tells us that the Ethiopian government denied that Ethiopia participated in slavery, however, written resources evidence that Ethiopia was indeed involved in slavery and some researchers concluded that in some part of Ethiopia slavery is still practiced till this day.
aneziwemkhungo

Primary source from gale.pdf - 2 views

Aneziwe Mkhungo

shared by aneziwemkhungo on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • aneziwemkhungo on 26 Apr 23
     
    This Source describes the different features which a person will find in the Zulu country as the Zululand in this source is described as a country. The Zululand is explained as having mountains, hills, having hot weather, being near the sea, and has swamps. It has many forests within the mountains. It also talks about how the Zulu land is very watered which means that it has many rivers with the Tugela River as the largest one. It also highlights how poor communication is since there are no proper roads.
maselaelo1

Guns.pdf - 2 views

shared by maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Guns have reached their highest development under the savagery, not of Africa, but of civilisation, yet the savagery of Africa was using guns long before their deep-mouthed, heavy boom echoed across the battlefields of Europ
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The significance of this quote reveals that the origin of guns was not preceeded by colonialism, and that Africans used guns long before countries over seas. Africans did not learn of guns because of the so caled civilisation.
  • tury.''2 But if Arab chronicles are consulted it will be found that guns were used in the Southern Sudan in the
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Evidence from the Arab traders, that travelled globally for trade disbute the assumption that Europeans were the first to use guns.
  • all
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Africans used guns amongst themselves to settle rivalry scores between different kinships and not to capture and enslave each other.
  • ...6 more annotations...
  • e. At this date such weapons were unkno
  • The African armies in the next century were far in advance of those of Britain in military equi
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The evidence of this quote reveals that Africans invented their own guns and that Westeners did not introduce guns to Africa.
  • ement which Drake had with the Spaniards off the American coast in 1572, the English crews were armed with only bows and arrows and, when Queen Elizabeth ascended the throne in 1557, the principal weapons in the arsenals of England were bows a
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      This quote reveals the type of weaponry Westeners used, which was dated by the crowning of Queen Elizabeth in 1557. And to which, by date, Africans already had guns which they used in battles and wars.
  • The
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The English word "gug" has no particular traceable origin.
  • The English word "gun" used for this product is of unknown etymology. The weapon is not a thousand years old but we do not know whence arose the English word "
  • e Bandig, Bundiq, in Mediterranean Arabic in medieval times). An improved type of firearm was manufactured at Venice and spread thence by commerce through the Eastern Mediterranean, thus reaching the Arabs of North and East Africa, who applied to the new weapon their name for Venice. The w
    • maselaelo1
      maselaelo1 on 25 Apr 23
       
      This marks evidence that only an advance form of guns was developed in Venice and not it's generic form.
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