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nonjabulorsxabar

Nyasa Leaders, Christianity and African Internationalism in 1920s Johannesburg.pdf - 1 views

Nonjabulo xaba 222145034'' History 2A

shared by nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Over the decade of the 1920s, four Christian men from colonial Nyasaland (modern-day Malawi) stood at the forefront of urban South African society, reimagining Africa’s past and future in cosmopolitan, internationalist terms. They each, however, envisaged very different transformational processes and very different new dispensations. These differences were, above all, grounded in their divergent Christian beliefs. Clements Kadalie and George Wellington Kampara on the one hand were both Ethiopianist Christians, who believed that humanity had an obligation to usher in a ‘truly’ Christian and democratic society in the here and now. If necessary, this would mean toppling secular colonial authorities. On the other hand, John G. Phillips and J.R. Albert Ankhoma, as Zionist and Pentecostal Christians, believed that earthly society was fundamentally doomed until Christ’s eventual return. They closely aligned themselves with Britain’s ‘god-sanctioned’ imperial project in their pursuit of spiritual self-perfection and theocratic rule.
    • nonjabulorsxabar
      nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23
       
      Four Christian men from Nyasaland in the 1920s reimagined Africa's past and future in cosmopolitan terms, but each had divergent Christian beliefs. Clements Kadalie and GeorgeWellington Kampara believed humanity had an obligation to create a Christian and democratic society, while John G. Phillips and J.R. Albert Ankhoma believed earthly society was doomed until Christ's return
  • themselves within 1920s Johannesburg, but their Christian-informed beliefs meant their different visions of the future were diametrically opposed. While Kampara no doubt followed UNIA doctrine to herald Marcus Garvey as his modern-day Moses, anticipating that, either by boat or plane, ‘the Americans were coming!’, Ankhoma declared that the leader of his ‘British Israeli’ Pentecostal church was the world’s ‘Moses of the day’. 4 R ejecting Pentecostalism and Garveyism, Kadalie in contrast believed ‘that the salvation of the Africans in this country will be brought about through their own sweat and labour’. Adopting the Swahili name for Moses as his pen-name, he became Clements ‘Musa’ Kadalie. 5 Working through the intellectual biographies of these Nyasa men, this article demonstrates that whereas Phillips and Ankhoma worked within, and endorsed, existing logics of empire because of their Christian beliefs, Kampara and Kadalie rejected ‘ethnic’ and ‘nativist’ national identities to position themselves at the forefront of a future ‘New Africa’. In many ways, it is innately conservative to frame these men as ‘Nyasas’. All four men were born in the state that became Malawi in 1964, and each contested colonial categories in important ways. 6 Despite their common Tonga parentage, however, being a Nyasa was crucial to how these men were understood in 1920s Johannesburg. And, more importantly, it was central to how they consolidated and radically transcended state-based modes of identification. Each brief biography sets out who these Nyasas were, how they reimagined Africa’s past to integrate the continent within world history, and how their differing understandings of the international and the imperial influenced their politics of the future. Central Africans have generally been marginalised in the historiographies of black South African nationalism and black internationalism.
    • nonjabulorsxabar
      nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23
       
      The four Nyasa men, Kampara, Ankhoma, and Kadalie, were born in Malawi in 1964 and contested colonial categories in important ways. Despite their common Tonga parentage, being a Nyasa was crucial to how these men were understood in 1920s Johannesburg and how they consolidated and transcended state-based modes of identification. Their differing understandings of the international and imperial influenced their politics of the future. Central Africans have been marginalised in historiographies of black South African nationalism and black internationalism.
  • A New Babylon at the forefront of modernity in Southern Africa, 1920s Johannesburg was a motley metropolis of international immigrants and transnational Christian, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu networks. 8 Large numbers of Afrikaners, Zulu, Xhosa, Eastern European Jews, Britons, Basotho, Americans, Mozambicans, Chinese and Indians were already living and working in the city from the 1890s, and by the mid1920s mission-educated Nyasas were increasingly prominent as clerks, medicine men and domestic servants. In 1927, the Chamber of Mines-sponsored newspaper Umteteli wa Bantu complained that Nyasas had monopolised the city’s domestic service industry – a lucrative sector previously dominated by Zulu and Pedi. 9 In addition to well-known Nyasa leaders in black trade unions, Garveyite associations, and Ethiopianist, Zionist and Pentecostal churches, ‘[a]ll adherents’ of Johannesburg’s Watch Tower movement were also ‘from Nyasaland, Rhodesia and Northern Transvaal’– though, in marked contrast to the movement in Central Africa, the church in urban South Africa did little to trouble government officials. 10
    • nonjabulorsxabar
      nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23
       
      Johannesburg was a city of international immigrants and transnational Christian, Jewish, Muslim and Hindu networks, with mission-educated Nyasas increasingly prominent as clerks, medicine men and domestic servants. All adherents of Johannesburg's Watch Tower movement were from Nyasaland, Rhodesia and Northern Transvaal.
  • ...2 more annotations...
  • Pentecostal missionaries – directly influenced both by Zion City and the 1906 Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles – also moved into Johannesburg during the first decade of the twentieth century, travelling through existing circuits of Ethiopianism, Zionism and older forms of nonconformity. They first formed the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) and, later, established branches of the ‘British Israeli’-influenced Apostolic Faith Church (AFC). 15 Based out of the Central Tabernacle in Bree Street, Johannesburg, from September 1908 and replicating the initial multi-racial and inter-denominational character of the Azusa Street Revival, the Pentecostal AFM looked to renew the entire Christian church, building on revivals within South Africa’s Dutch Reformed Church and attracting considerable numbers of Zionist converts through numerous divine healings, as well as other ‘gifts of the spirit’, such as speaking in tongues and rainmaking. During the 1920s, biblical imagery infused the street politics of ICU leaders, Communist revolutionaries, Garveyites and radical members of the ANC – as well Pentecostal and Zionist street preachers – who all promised different versions of a millennial new age. 16 All four Nyasa men were thus part of a broader shift in the religious and political landscape of Johannesburg, as South Africa became markedly more Christian, and black South African Christians became increasingly fragmented between mainline, Ethiopianist, Nazarite, Pentecostal and Zionist strands of Christianity. While in 1921 only 32% of rural black South Africans defined themselves as Christian and only 50,000 of some 1,300,000
    • nonjabulorsxabar
      nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23
       
      Pentecostal missionaries moved into Johannesburg during the first decade of the twentieth century, forming the Apostolic Faith Mission (AFM) and later the Apostolic Faith Church (AFC). They sought to renew the Christian church and attract Zionist converts through divine healings and other 'gifts of the spirit'. During the 1920s, biblical imagery infused the street politics of ICU leaders, Communist revolutionaries, Garveyites and radical members of the ANC.
  • By contrast, Beinart and Bundy have presented Kadalie, only a year later, in the aftermath of the original ICU’s fragmentation, as espousing a radical Afrocentric Christianity aligned with Ethiopianist churches. 51 While Kadalie was criticised for being erratic and anti-Christian by his numerous opponents, his relationship with Christianity points to very real tensions and contradictions in 1920s Southern Africa. He was certainly very critical of white missionaries, Pentecostal Christians, and ‘pie-in-the-sky’ theology, but this did not amount to agnosticism or outright atheism. In the same Lovedale speech cited above, Kadalie struck out at those accusing the ICU ‘of being anti-religious. On what facts this charge is based I do not even pretend to know’, and he consistently employed biblical images and motifs in his rhetoric – even going as far as to say that ‘I stood for God the Father, C for God the Son, and U for God the Holy Ghost’. 52 Like many contemporary Ethiopianist Christians, Kadalie continued to follow Presbyterian traditions at the same time as arguing for the existence of black angels and against the hypocrisy of white missionaries. Seeing Christianity as important means of recruiting members, he later regretted that given ‘the great mass of the Africans are religiously minded [...] many of our members did not approve of the behaviour of the secretaries’. 53
    • nonjabulorsxabar
      nonjabulorsxabar on 26 Apr 23
       
      Kadalie was a radical Afrocentric Christian aligned with Ethiopianist churches in 1920s Southern Africa. He was critical of white missionaries, Pentecostal Christians, and 'pie-in-the-sky' theology, but this did not amount to agnosticism or outright atheism. He continued to follow Presbyterian traditions while arguing for the existence of black angels.
andiswamntungwa

The administration of the abolition laws, African responses, and post‐proclam... - 1 views

Andiswa Mntungwa History 2A

shared by andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • ated. I agree with Dumett and Johnson that abolition laws were erratically administered, 7
  • I reject the suggestion that the initial surge in the use of the courts occurred in the Protectorate." In the Protectorate it was limited to centres of missionary activity. I take issue with the existing literature which argues that slaves usually used the courts in the Colony in their quest for freedom. Even in the Colony, the courts failed to assist freed slaves in adjusting to freedom. This explains their return to forms of bondage and dependency, and not, as others have maintained, the benignity of slavery or the generosity of holders.
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      Kwabena Opare-Akurang does not agree with the suggestion that the purpose of the courts was a special form of government, which one country recognizes the supremacy of the other. It They were only limited to gospel propagating centers. He is against what the literature says, that slaves could use the courts in the colony to seek freedom. He further argues that the courts failed to offer assistance to slaves that were already free, assistance that was going to help them acclimatize to the idea of freedom. This resulted in them returning back to the state of being slaves and being dependent on the holders. But this did not apply to all the slaves as some were able to regain the ability of being kind and tolerant towards the holders.
  • In the Gold Coast, there was a shortage of colonial officials with professional legal training and experience throughout the colonial period. 43 As the political structures of the colonial state developed, the onus of implementing the abolition ordinance devolved on the DCs. The DCs court was solely responsible for adjudicating cases of slavery from the late 1870s. 44 It
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      Throughout the colonial era, the Gold Coast suffered from a shortage of colonial officials with professional legal training and expertise. The responsibility for carrying out the abolition decree passed to the DCs as the colonial state's political structures grew. Slavery cases were only heard by the DCs court beginning in the late 1870s.
  • ...6 more annotations...
  • The operation of the abolition ordinance was stagnant and erratic until the late 1920s, when pressure from foreign anti-slavery societies led to revisions, making it more viable as an instrument of legal status abolition. First, there was the Slave-dealing Abolition Ordinance of 1928 that strengthened the previous Ordinance. 27 Second, the 'Reafflrmation of the Abolition of Slavery Ordinance, 1930' clearly stated that 'slavery in any form whatsoever was unlawful and that the legal status of slavery did not exist
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      The abolition ordinance operated in a stagnant and unpredictable manner until the late 1920s, when pressure from overseas anti-slavery organisations resulted in amendments that made it more effective as a tool for legal status abolition.First, the preceding Ordinance was tightened by the Slave-dealing Abolition Ordinance of 1928.Second, the Reaffirmation of the Abolition of Slavery Ordinance of 1930 made it abundantly plain that "slavery in any form was unlawful and that the legal status of slavery did not exist."
  • The Ordinance was to apply to the Gold Coast Colony and the 'Protected Territories'. It also stated that henceforth slaves who entered the Protectorate and the Colony would be automatically free. 20 Thus Strahan's policy sought modification of servile institutions rather than their elimination. 21
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      The Gold Coast Colony and the "Protected Territories" were to be covered by the Ordinance. Furthermore, it stipulated that going forward, slaves who entered the Protectorate and the Colony would be granted automatic freedom. Therefore, Strahan's program favored altering servile institutions rather than eliminating them.
  • During the first decade of the twentieth century, the number of European and African administrators increased, and the work of the DCs became purely administrative, devoid of the legal work that had encumbered it in the past. By 1905, there were Detective Branches at Accra, Cape Coast, and Sekondi, all coastal towns. Accra had the highest number of detectives with the most superior ranks. This is perhaps reflected on the statistics for crime for 1905, which recorded four slave-dealing cases in Accra and one at Cape Coast." Reinforced by additional personnel, provincial courts began to assume responsibility for administering the abolition ordinance. However, this did not bring any marked change in their administration
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      The number of European and African administrators expanded throughout the first decade of the 20th century, and the work of the DCs changed from being mostly legal in nature to being entirely administrative. Detective Branches existed in the coastal cities of Accra, Cape Coast, and Sekondi by 1905. The most detectives with the highest ranks were located in Accra. The criminal statistics for 1905, which listed four slave-dealing instances in Accra and one in Cape Coast, may reflect this."With the help of more staff, provincial courts started taking up administration of the abolition ordinance. However, this had no discernible impact on how they conducted business.
  • hus British resources were stretched to the limit in the Gold Coast. Shortage of colonial officials limited the geographical extent of British administration and led to a policy of conciliation towards the Protectorate states, thereby facilitating slavery there. 56 It was also the chief reason that enforcement of abolition laws was confined to the Colony until the early decades of the twentieth century. 57 Until the 1880s, the colonial government tacitly supported the Basel Mission in its struggle to emancipate slaves and pawns in Akyem Abuakwa. 58 Colonial policy was to 'maintain political peace in the country at any price'. 59 There was a similar British policy in the Praso and Voltaic regions. 60 This made it possible for slave-dealers to continue to bring slaves into the Gold Coast from the interior ports of trade well into the early twentieth century." Allowing slavery to thrive in the Protectorate permitted it to survive in the Colony.
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      In the Gold Coast, all available British resources were used to the fullest extent. Lack of colonial administrators constrained the British administration's geographic reach and resulted in a policy of accommodation with the Protectorate States, which encouraged slavery there. This was also the main reason that up until the early decades of the 20th century, the Colony was the only place where abolition laws were actually enforced. Up until the 1880s, the Basel Mission's fight to free slaves and pawns in Akyem Abuakwa had implicit assistance from the colonial authorities. The goal of colonial policy in 1958 was to "maintain political peace in the nation at all costs."59In the Praso and Voltaic regions, the British government followed a similar program. This allowed slave traders to continue transporting captives from inland ports of commerce into the Gold Coast long into the early 20th century.
  • One major gap in the historiography is how Africans responded to the ordinance and its impact on the effectiveness of the abolition. Indeed, Africans responded ingeniously to the operation of the abolition ordinance. Slave-holders and dealers adopted innovative measures to counter the abolition ordinance, hence making it difficult for colonial officials to detect enslaved persons. 98 Most cases of enslavement were brought to the attention of colonial officials through African informers or by the slaves themselv
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      How Africans reacted to the Ordinance and its effect on the success of the abolition is one significant area where the historiography is lacking. Africans did, in fact, cleverly adapt to the abolition ordinance's operation. Innovative tactics were used by slaveholders and dealers to thwart the abolition legislation, making it challenging for colonial officials to find slaves. The majority of enslavement incidents were reported to colonial authorities by either the slaves themselves or by African informants.
  • Communal religious practices and sanctions also served the interests of slave dealers and holders. 107 Slaves were made to swear oaths and 'drink fetish', ritually binding them to stay and refrain from reporting their servile status to colonial officials. For example, in 1875 a holder took a freed slave to 'King Tackie for the purpose of administering fetish oath so as to declare that she will no longer go back to the government'. 108 This bound the slave to the holder, as slaves feared that a breach of the oath or the 'fetish' would be catastrophic. Again, how prevalent this was is difficult to gauge. However, the 'fetish' and oathing sanctions have been powerful agencies of social and political control throughout Ghanaian history.
    • andiswamntungwa
      andiswamntungwa on 27 Apr 23
       
      The interests of slave traders and owners were furthered by communal religious punishments and practices. Slaves were ritually forced to stay and keep from disclosing their servile position to colonial authority by making them take oaths and engage in a "drink fetish." For instance, in 1875, a holding took a liberated slave to "King Tackie to administer fetish oath so as to declare that she will not go back to the government. "A breach of the oath or the "fetish" would be disastrous, therefore this bonded the slave to the possessor. Again, it's hard to say how common this was. However, throughout Ghana's history, "fetish" and "oathing" sanctions have been effective social and political control mechanisms.
olwethusilindile

zulu Origins.pdf - 1 views

Olwethu Visasa 220117155

shared by olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Origins of the Zulu Kingdom
  • James Gump*
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      is the author of this journal article
  • the Xhosa u
  • ...28 more annotations...
  • 1820s and 1830s is described
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      most important event took place
  • on. John D. Omer-Cooper, in Zulu After math: A Nineteenth Century Revolution in Bantu Africa argues that the "wars and migrations of the Mfecane were the by products of a socio-political revolution towards larger communi ties and wider loyaltie
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      why the author only mention wars and migration? What about hunger?
  • Omer-Cooper's Zulu Aftermath serves as a useful point of departure for an examination of the origins of the Zulu kingdom.
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      why only the Omer- Cooper's Zulu Aftermath ?
  • survived into modern times."3 Omer-Cooper includes among the mfecane's progeny the Basuto kingdom on the highveld forged during the difaqane and surviving to reach independence as Lesotho; the Swazi kingdom of the Dhlamini-Ngwane, founded in the 1840s and the basis for Swaziland; the Ngoni kingdoms in Malawi, Zambia and Tanzania; the Kololo kingdom on the upper Zambesi river; and the Ndebele kingdom, settling eventually in southern Zimbabwe
  • a. The battles and famines of the 1820s and 1830s are but a part of the history of Nguni state for
  • Zulu Kingdom
  • The Historian
  • The conventional emphasis on great men and the military institutions they orchestrated embraces at least two methodologi cal deficiencies. First, it is ahistorical—if one views the formation of the Zulu kingdom as a revolutionary outburst among the northern Nguni one may overlook subtle evolutionary processes of socioeconomic change; and second, it is myopic—the tendency to study Zulu state formation as a phase of military history betrays a cultural or ideological dimension that reveals a great deal about the "essence" of the Zulu kingdo
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      summarized The conventional focus on great men and military institutions is ahistorical and myopic, overlooking subtle socioeconomic change and cultural/ideological dimensions of the Zulu kingdom.
  • Although Omer-Cooper does not view these societies this way, he perpetuates the bias by emphasizing the military "essence" of the Zulu kingdo
  • . He replaced this brief period of ritual seclusion with long term military service to the chiefdom and grouped these former circumcision sets on the criterion of similar age rather than the traditional territorial principle. With these redesigned age-sets, or amabutho, Dingiswayo forged a confederacy from among his Nguni neighb
  • Although the Zulu was one of the least significant of the chiefdoms absorbed during the course of Mthethwa expansion, its status changed markedly when Shaka usurped the Zulu chieftainship from his brother in 1816
  • In 1959, anthropologist Monica Wilson initiated a second line of investigation by suggesting that scholars examine the role of long-distance trade as a factor in Zulu state formation. As evidence, she cites the statement of Henry Frances Fynn, an early Natalian trader, that Dingiswayo initiated trade with the northern part of Delagoa Bay as one of his first acts as Mthethwa chieftain.15 Alan Smith, drawing upon the journals and letters of Portuguese traders and missionaries, has advanced Wilson's proposal by arguing that a flourishing trade existed at Delagoa Bay between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. The lucrative ivory trade with Europe during this period intensified in the second half of the eighteenth century and Smith demonstrates that a significant share of trade originated in Natal. Numerous accounts corroborate this view and indicate that trade routes extended as far south as the eastern Cape fro
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      summary Long-distance trade was a major factor in Zulu state formation, as evidenced by Henry Frances Fynn's statement that Dingiswayo initiated trade with the northern part of Delagoa Bay. Alan Smith argued that a flourishing trade existed at Delagoa Bay between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries.
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      were the (regiments ) defended against raiders provided protection for refugees
  • f ivory. During the course of the Mabudu-Tembe struggle two major Nguni chiefdoms, the Dhlamini-Ngwane and Ndwandwe, moved southwestward into northern Zulul
  • Two other studies advance the hypothesis that trade was a major elemënt in the rise of the Zulu kingdom. Henry Slater argues that the effect of mercantile capital (i.e., the European demand for ivory at Delagoa Bay) placed unbearable tensions on a feudal social structure. The ensuing conflict over control of the means of production for the market transformed a feudal mode of production into an absolutist one.18 David W. Hedges argues that control of the ivory trade along the coastal lowlands between Delagoa Bay and northern Natal played an important role in Nguni state formation during the latter half of the eighteenth century. The conflict that ensued by the early nineteenth century did not result from an increase in ivory exports, as Smith suggests, but according to Hedges, from a change in the nature of the trade at Delagoa Bay. Hedges argues that the number of ships at Delagoa Bay decreased, and the export of cattle, a valuable commodity in Zululand, replaced that of
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      summary Trade was a major factor in the rise of the Zulu kingdom, with Henry Slater arguing that mercantile capital placed tensions on feudal social structures and David W. Hedges arguing that control of the ivory trade along the coastal lowlands played an important role in Nguni state formation.
  • socio-political change should be challenged for two reasons. First, the most substantial evidence linking Nguni expansion to Delagoa Bay is Fynn's brief allusion to Dingiswayo
  • Second, the precolonial Nguni economy pivoted around the production of cattle and crops. Even during the nineteenth century trade held, at best, a secondary role.
  • The most dramatic difference between this map and one he constructs for 1950 is that the latter reflects almost no forest or scrubfores
  • ry. The conflict that appears to have been widespread immediately prior to the emergence of Shaka, may have reflected the efforts of ruling lineages to extend their polities over the most favorable ecological zone
  • An analysis of Ndwandwe, Mthethwa and Qwabe expansion in the eighteenth century reflects three goals of each: 1) to dominate versatile pasturage; 2) to control fertile river valleys and coastal lowlands; and 3) to dominate defensible hill regions to protect precious economic assets, such as cattle and grain.26
  • g the northern Nguni . . . must also be understood as encompassing a major social transformation cen
  • The Historian Given the spotty oral and documentary evidence, it is doubtful that scholars will ever know "precisely why the long-established equilibrium among the small autonomous northern Nguni chiefdoms rather suddenly collapsed."42 Yet it now seems clear that this collapse was not sudden, and it involved significant ideological, as well as socio-political change. At the same time scholars have also exaggerated the military features of the Zulu kingdom, thus missing the more complex character of Nguni amabutho. And finally, the extent of population loss on the highveld as a result of the Shakan wars remains unknown. Afrikaners may not have trekked into a demographic vacuum. Since dramatic depopulation is not a proven historical fact, it should not be treated as such. To do so, one risks contributing to the political mythology of apartheid.
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      is the loss of stability in relation to supply or demand
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      is a specified word , usually of another language
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      Given the patchy oral and written records, it is unlikely that researchers will ever fully understand "precisely why the long-established equilibrium among the small autonomous northern Nguni chief doms rather suddenly collapsed."42 However, it is now apparent that this collapse was not abrupt and that it encompassed a considerable shift in ideologies as well as sociopolitics. At the same time, researchers have overemphasized the military prowess of the Zulu empire, omitting the more nuanced personality of Nguni amabutho. Finally, it is unknown how much of the highveld's population was displaced by the Shaka's conflicts. The demographic void that the Afrikaners entered might not have existed. Dramatic depopulation should not be accepted as historical fact because it has not been established. One runs the danger of causing the apartheid
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      Given the patchy oral and written records, it is unlikely that researchers will ever fully understand "precisely why the long-established equilibrium among the small autonomous northern Nguni chief doms rather suddenly collapsed."42 However, it is now apparent that this collapse was not abrupt and that it encompassed a considerable shift in ideologies as well as sociopolitics. At the same time, researchers have overemphasized the military prowess of the Zulu empire, omitting the more nuanced personality of Nguni amabutho. Finally, it is unknown how much of the highveld's population was displaced by the Shaka's conflicts. The demographic void that the Afrikaners entered might not have existed. Dramatic depopulation should not be accepted as historical fact because it has not been established. One runs the danger of causing the apartheid
  • The Bloody Story of the Zulu War of 18
    • olwethusilindile
      olwethusilindile on 26 Apr 23
       
      how truthful is this? the Nguni never run out of the place
sinbomimapukata

On the Central South African Tribes from the South Coast to the Zambesi..pdf - 1 views

Sinobomi Mapukata History 2A 222080384

shared by sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • I found traces of tribes which do not now exist there, such as heaps of burnt bones of wild animals, none of domestic animals, and broken she
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      The explorer discovers that some tribes we now not in existence
  • The second group of non-existing tribes belonged to the regions between the Limpopo and the Zambesi. I found there ruins of locations. It is very well known that two hundred years ago there was an empire in Central Africa, with which the Dutch and Portuguese traders were well acquainted. We also know that there were provinces called Motapa or Monopotapa, but that is all the information we have about them. I am not sure that the ruins I saw belonged to this extinct race, but I believe so; they were generally in the vicinity of mines, especially gold mines. They were of stone, on the tops of mountains,put together without any cement, but so well fitted together that they have stood for hundreds of year
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      This article's highlighted section describes how South Africans are linguistically and culturally diverse, with many different tribes living there, some of which are now extinct.
  • When the Dutch came into South Africa and killed the game, they thought that the Bushmen would come down and work as servants, but instead of doing so they took refuge in their mountains, and when the game disappeared they shot the cattle of the Dutch settler
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      When the Dutch settlers came to South Africa and took over, the Bushmen did not give into imperialism and instead moved as a tribe to an area that was occupied by the Dutch because they had their own way of life that would not have been accommodated by the Dutch.
  • ...9 more annotations...
  • appeared they shot the cattle of the Dutch settlers. The result was that the Dutch treated them rather severely, shooting then down like dogs. In this way thousands of Bushmeni were slain, and not more than about two per cent. of the number existing a hundred years ago are now aliv
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      because the Bushmen were not accepting of the Dutch and they did not succumb to the Dutch's instilled imperialism, the Dutch killed them and now there is a very small number of Bushmen alive if there's any at all
  • But, strange to say, these Bushmen, who are regarded as the lowest types of Africans, in one thing excel all the other South African tribes whose acquaintance I made between the south coast and 10? south latitude. I have in my possession about two hundred sketches on wood and stone and ostrich shells, by various tribes, but everyone who knows anything about drawing must acknowledge that those which were done by Bushmen are superior to any of the other
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      The explorer finds the Bushmen to be a superior tribe to the rest of the tribes in South Africa. They put it on it's own superior pedestal that the other tribes.
  • They sketch them in their caves and paint them with ochre, or chisel them out in rocks with stone implements, and on the tops of mountains we may see representations of all the animals which have lived in those parts in former times
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      the bushmen were more creative and artistic compared to the other tribes given that they had limited resources.
  • They are therefore obliged to take to agriculture
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      Agriculture was their way of making a living.
  • Drunkenness is the chief cause of their dying ou
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is one of the reasons why the tribes are decreasing in population
  • Hottento
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      These people are of the Khoisan ethnic group, who led nomadic pastoral lives and relied on herding, hunting, and gathering for their livelihood.
  • . But among the Betchuanas the men never allow the womeni to touch their cattle.
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      Men and women took part in different roles.
  • They were so given to drunkenness that whole families died of hunger, because when a trader arrived there with brandy, they would give him the very last sheep they had got for
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      they were easily swayed by alcohol, so much so that they would give away the little they had and be left with nothing all in the name of gratitude
  • The Betchuanas regard their women only as slaves, but since ploughs have been introduced the women have gained more respect, and their work is confined more to the homes.
    • sinbomimapukata
      sinbomimapukata on 25 Apr 23
       
      Men and women had different roles, women were undermined and lived in a patriarchal system.
kwanelealicia

Orange Free State* - Countries - Office of the Historian - 1 views

history.state.gov/...orange-free-state

Kwanele Buthelezi History 2A

shared by kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Orange Free State
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      The Orange Free State was an independent Boer sovereign republic under British suzerainty in Southern Africa during the second half of the 19th century, which ceased to exist after it was defeated and surrendered to the British Empire at the end of the Second Boer War in 1902. It is one of the three historical precursors to the present-day Free State province.
  • The Orange Free State was a Boer republic in southern Africa. The Boers, of Dutch ancestry, had settled the area earlier in the nineteenth century. The 1854 Bloemfontein Convention recognized the independence of the Orange Free State, which was located between the Orange and the Vaal Rivers. The Orange Free State was a republic modeled upon the U.S. constitution, but restricted franchise to white males.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Southern African Boer nation known as the Orange Free State. Early in the nineteenth century, Dutch immigrants known as Boers inhabited the region. The Orange Free State, positioned between the Orange and Vaal Rivers, was granted independence by the Bloemfontein Convention in 1854. A republic based on the U.S. constitution, the Orange Free State only allowed white men to vote.
  • The Orange Free State was a Boer republic in southern Africa. The Boers, of Dutch ancestry, had settled the area earlier in the nineteenth century. The 1854 Bloemfontein Convention recognized the independence of the Orange Free State, which was located between the Orange and the Vaal Rivers. The Orange Free State was a republic modeled upon the U.S. constitution, but restricted franchise to white males.
  • ...16 more annotations...
  • In 1867 diamonds were discovered in the Orange Free State and by 1870 there were sufficient reserves of diamonds to stimulate a “rush” of several thousand fortune hunters. Other important Orange Free State exports that gained a wider world market during the 1860s were ostrich feathers and ivory, obtained by hunting the region’s elephants
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Diamonds were found in the Orange Free State in 1867, and by 1870 there were enough diamond deposits to cause a rush of a few thousand would-be millionaires. Ostrich feathers and ivory, which were harvested from the area's elephants, were other significant Orange Free State products that expanded their global market during the 1860s.
  • The expanding commercial trade prompted the United States to complete its first international agreement with the Orange Free State, the Convention of Friendship and Commerce and Extradition of 1871, and also recognize the young republic.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      I think that this is an important peace of information because the author explains how the Agreement of Goodwill and Economics and Extradition of 1871, which the United States concluded with the Orange Free State as part of its first international deal, and the nascent republic's recognition were both motivated by the growth of economic trade.
  • The 1902 Peace of Vereeniging, which ended the Boer War, annexed the Orange Free State to the British Empire.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Here the author tells us that the Orange Free State was incorporated into the British Empire as part of the 1902 Peace of Vereeniging, which put an end to the Boer War.
  • The first known act of recognition between the United States and the Republic of the Orange Free State occurred in 1871 when plenipotentiaries for the two states signed a Convention of Friendship and Commerce and Extradition on December 22, 1871.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      When appointed officials representing the two nations approved the Agreement of Amity and Trade and The act of extradition on December 22, 1871, it was the first documented instance of an acknowledgment among the United States of America and the nation of the Republic of the Orange Free State.
  • 1776-1909
  • Consular Presence
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Consular presence is an official appointed by a sovereign state to protect its commercial interests and aid its citizens in a foreign city.
  • The first U.S. Consul assigned to the Orange Free State was Ernst Richard Landgraf, who was appointed as U.S. Consular Agent to Bloemfontein on December 16, 1891. U.S. consular agents remained posted at Bloemfontein after its incorporation into the British Empire until the post was closed by agency order on November 30, 1928.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Ernst Richard Landgraf, who was appointed as the United States' first consular agent at Bloemfontein on December 16, 1891, served as the nation's first consul in the Orange Free State. After Bloemfontein joined the British Empire, U.S. consular officials remained stationed there until the post was disbanded on November 30, 1928, under agency directive.
  • William M. Malloy
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      The Author.
  • Treaties, Conventions, International Acts, Protocols, and Agreements Between The United States of American and Other Powers
  • Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1910).
  • Full diplomatic relations between the United States and the Orange Free State were never established. In 1899, the Orange Free State declared war upon the British and fought alongside its sister Boer republic, the South African Republic, during the Boer War (1899-1902). The British occupied the capital of Bloemfontein in 1900.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      The United States never established formal diplomatic ties with the Orange Free State. During the Boer War (1899-1902), which took place between the Boer Republics of South Africa and the Orange Free State, the latter declared war on the former in 1899. In 1900, Bloemfontein became the new British colony's capital.
  • Diplomatic Relations
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Diplomatic relations is the arrangement between two countries by which each has representatives in the other country.
  • The United States and the Orange Free State never established diplomatic relations.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Why did they not establish any diplomatic relations? I mean exchanges on the surplus of another country could be beneficial to the other's deficit, and the other way around.
  • On December 22, 1871, the United States signed a Convention of Friendship and Commerce and Extradition with the Orange Free State in Bloemfonten, Orange Free State. The convention was negotiated and signed by U.S. Special Agent Willard W. Edgcomb, who served at the time as American Consul at the Cape of Good Hope, and the government secretary of the Orange Free State, Friedrich Kaufman Höhne. This convention was denounced on January 4, 1895 by the Government of Orange Free State.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      So basically a Convention of Friendship and Commerce and Extradition between the United States and the Orange Free State was signed on December 22, 1871, at Bloemfontein, Orange Free State. U.S. Special Agent Willard W. Edgcomb, who was then the American Consul at the Cape of Good Hope, and Friedrich Kaufman Höhne, the Orange Free State's government secretary, worked out the terms of the convention and signed it. On January 4, 1895, this convention was condemned by the Orange Free State government.
  • Colonization
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Colonization is ​the act of taking control of an area or a country that is not your own, especially using force, and sending people from your own country to live there.
  • The Orange Free State ceased to exist as an independent, sovereign state in 1902 as a result of the process of colonization that carved up much of the African continent into areas of European empire. There were several states like the Orange Free State, with which the United States had treaties or sometimes even diplomatic relations, that were incorporated into another state’s overseas empire.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 26 Apr 23
       
      Due to the colonization process, which divided much of the African continent into regions under the control of the European empire, the Orange Free State ceased to exist as a free, sovereign state in 1902. It included a number of states, such as the Orange Free State, that were absorbed into the overseas empire of another state with which the United States had treaties or occasionally even diplomatic relations.
amahlemotumi

Basuto Gun War | Military Wiki | Fandom - 2 views

military-history.fandom.com/...Basuto_Gun_War

Amahle Motumi 220069900 History 2A

shared by amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • he Gun War, also known as the Basuto War, was an 1880-1881 conflict in the British territory of Basutoland (present-day Lesotho) in Southern Africa, fought between Cape Colony forces and rebellious Basotho chiefs over the right of natives to bear arms
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      Conflict or rather the war between the two parties was caused by the Cape Colonies refusal for blacks Africans to be in the possession of firearms.
  • 880 as the date for surrendering weapons.
  • territory remained essentially autonomous in the early years of colonial rule
  • ...8 more annotations...
  • demanded that all natives surrender their firearms to Cape authorities
  • 1879 Peace Protection Act
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      act required all weapons to be turned in to the magistrate who decide whether or not the Basutos should own them.
  • British protectorate
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      basically a country or state that was under the protection of the British empire for defence against aggression and other violations of law.
  • lonial Cape forces sent to put down the rebellion suffered heavy casualties, as the Basotho had obtained serviceable firearms from the Orange Free State and enjoyed a natural defensive advantage in their country's mountainous terrain.
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      geographic location of the Basutos was an advantage to them because of the mountainous topography but also they had well functioning guns that they used as protection against the enemy.
  • guerrilla warfare
  • , ambushing
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      irregular war fair where a group of combatants use military tactics like raids, ambushes and hit and run tactics to fight another group
  • d cavalry
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      soldiers and warriors who fight on horse back.
  • he land remained in Basotho hands and the nation enjoyed unrestricted access to firearms in exchange for a national one-time indemnity of 5000 cattle.
    • amahlemotumi
      amahlemotumi on 25 Apr 23
       
      fine or compensation for them being able to keep the land.
mbalenhle2003

Slavery | Encyclopedia.com - 2 views

www.encyclopedia.com/...slavery

Mbalenhle Magagula History 2A

shared by mbalenhle2003 on 23 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Slavery is the unconditional servitude of one individual to another. A slave is usually acquired by purchase and legally described as chattel or a tangible form of movable property. For much of human history, slavery has constituted an important dimension of social and occupational organization. The word slavery originated with the sale of Slavs to the Black Sea region during the ninth century. Slavery existed in European society until the nineteenth century, and it was the principal source of labor during the process of European colonization.
  • Some forms of slavery existed among the indigenous societies in the Americas before the arrival of Christopher Columbus. However, the reconstruction of the Americas after 1492 led to a system of slavery quite unprecedented in human experience. Slavery in the Americas was a patently artificial social and political construct, not a natural condition. It was a specific organizational response to a specific labor scarcity. African slavery in the Americas, then, was a relatively recent development in the course of human history—and quite exceptional in the universal history of slave societies.
  • Nevertheless, the first Africans who accompanied the early Spanish explorers were not all slaves. Some were free (such as Pedro Alonso Niño, who accompanied Christopher Columbus on his third voyage); and others were servants.Nuflo de Olano, who accompanied Vasco Nuñez de Balboa across the Isthmus of Panama was, however, a slave. So were Juan Valiente and several others who traveled and fought with Hernán Cortés in Mexico, or the Pizarro brothers in Peru, or Pánfilo de Narváez in Florida. Those blacks who sailed with Columbus on his first voyage to the Americas in 1492 were free men, and their descendants presumably were as free as any other Spanish colonist in the Americas. Other blacks who accompanied the early Spanish conquistadores might have been servile, but they were not true slaves as the term was later understood. Estebanico—described as "Andrés Dorantes' black Moorish slave"—accompanied Alvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca in his amazing journey around the Gulf of Mexico and overland across the Southwest to Mexico City in the late 1520s and 1530s. Estebanico learned several local Indian languages with consummate ease, and he posed, along with his companions, as holy men gifted with healing powers (Weber, p. 44). The chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo describes several "blacks" who accompanied Hernán Cortés to Mexico—one of whom brought wheat to the New World, and another (a follower of Pánfilo de Narváez) who introduced smallpox among the Indians, with lethal results (Castillo, 1979). Of the 168 men who followed Francisco Pizarro to Peru in 1532 and captured the Inca at Cajamarca, at least two were black: Juan García, born in Old Castile, served the expedition as a piper and crier, and Miguel Ruiz, born in Seville, was a part of the cavalry and probably received a double portion of the spoils, as did all those who had horses.
  • ...16 more annotations...
  • Slavery was also a form of power relations, so slaves by and large did not have an equal voice in articulating a view of their condition. Their actions, however, spoke loudly of their innermost thoughts and represented their reflections on, and reactions to, the world in which they found themselves. Columbus thought the people he encountered in the Caribbean in 1492 might make good slaves, as he seemed to infer in his log of October 10, 1492, when he wrote: "They ought to make good and skilled servants, for they repeat very quickly whatever we say to them. I think that they can easily be made Christians, for they seem to have no religion. If it pleases Our Lord, I will take six of them to Your Highness when I depart, in order that they may learn our language" (Columbus, p. 77).
  • The transatlantic slave trade formally began in 1518, when King Charles I of Spain sanctioned the direct importation of Africans to his colonies in the Americas, finally acknowledging that the potential supply of indigenous slaves was inadequate to maintain the economic viability of his fledgling overseas colonies. Shortly thereafter, the Portuguese started to import Africans to Brazil to create a plantation society and establish an Atlantic bulwark against other Europeans intruding along the coast. As the demand for labor grew, the number of Africans imported as slaves increased, and manual labor throughout the Americas eventually became virtually synonymous with the enslavement of Africans. The transatlantic slave trade became a lucrative international enterprise, and by the time it ended, around 1870, more than ten million Africans had been forcibly transported and made slaves in the Americas. Many millions more died in Africa or at sea in transit to the Americas.
  • The slave trade responded to an interrelated series of factors operating across Africa, at the supply side, and also in the Americas, at the market level. The trade can be divided into four phases, strongly influenced by the development of colonialism throughout the hemisphere. In the first phase, lasting to about 1620, the Americas were the domain of the Spanish and the Portuguese. These Iberian powers introduced about 125,000 slaves to the Americas, with some 75,000 (or 27 percent of African slave exports of the period) to the Spanish colonies, and about 50,000 (18 percent of the trade) to Brazil. This was a relatively small flow of about 1,000 slaves per year, most of whom were supplied from Portuguese forts along the West African coast. But slavery in the towns, farms, and mines of the Americas then employed less African slaves (about 45 percent of the total Atlantic trade) than in the tropical African islands of Fernando Po and Sâo Tomé, Europe proper, or the islands of the Madeiras, Cape Verdes, and the Azores (about 55 percent of trade). Indeed, the small island of Sâo Tomé alone received more than 76,000 African slaves during the period, exceeding the entire American market.
  • The second phase of the transatlantic slave trade lasted from 1620 to about 1700 and saw the distribution of approximately 1,350,000 slaves throughout the Americas, with an additional 25,000 or so going to Europe. During this phase, the Americas became the main destination of enslaved Africans. The trade was marked by greater geographical distribution and the development of a more varied supply pattern. The European component of the trade eventually dwindled to less than 2 percent. Instead, Brazil assumed the premier position as a slave destination, receiving nearly 42 percent of all Africans sold on the western side of the Atlantic Ocean. Spanish America received about 22 percent, distributed principally in Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Mexico, Central America, and the Andean regions of South America. The English Caribbean colonies bought more than 263,000 slaves, or 20 percent of the volume sold in the Americas. The French Caribbean imported about 156,000 slaves, or 12 percent; and the small islands of the Dutch Caribbean bought another 40,000 slaves, or 3 percent of slaves sold throughout the Americas.
  • Even more important, slavery evolved into a complex system of labor, commerce, and society that was legally, socially, and ethnically distinct from other forms of servitude, and that was almost always applied to the condition of nonfree Africans. Two patterns of colonies developed throughout the western hemisphere: colonies designed as microcosms of European societies and colonies designed primarily for the efficient production of export commodities. The first group of colonies constituted the settler colonies. In these colonies, slaves constituted a minority of the population and did not necessarily represent the dominant labor sector. In the second group were exploitation plantation colonies, marked by their overwhelming proportion of nonfree members, and in which slavery formed the dominant labor system.
  • The period between 1701 and 1810 represented the maturation of the slave system in the Americas. This third phase witnessed the apogee of both the transatlantic slave trade and the system of American slavery. Altogether, nearly six million Africans—amounting to nearly 60 percent of the entire transatlantic slave trade—arrived in American ports. Brazil continued to be the dominant recipient country, accounting for nearly two million Africans, or 31 percent, of the trade during this period. The British Caribbean plantations (mainly on Barbados and Jamaica) received almost a million and a half slaves, accounting for 23 percent of the trade. The French Antilles (mainly Saint-Domingue on western Hispaniola, Martinique, and Guadeloupe) imported almost as many, accounting for 22 percent of the trade. The Spanish Caribbean (mainly Cuba) imported more than 500,000 slaves, or 9.6 percent of the trade. The Dutch Caribbean accounted for nearly 8 percent of the trade, but most of those slaves were re-exported to other areas of the New World. The British North American colonies imported slightly more than 300,000, or slightly less than 6 percent of the trade, while the small Danish colonies of the Caribbean bought about 25,000 slaves, a rather minuscule proportion of the slaves sold in the Americas during this period.
  • The system of slavery in the Americas was generally restrictive and harsh, but significant variations characterized the daily lives of slaves. The exhaustive demands of the plantation societies in parts of the Caribbean and Brazil, combined with skewed sexual balances among the slaves, resulted in excessively high mortality rates, unusually low fertility rates, and, consequently, a steady demand for imported Africans to maintain the required labor forces. The recovery of the indigenous populations in places such as Mexico and the Andean highlands led to the use of other systems of coerced labor, somewhat reducing the reliance on African slaves in these areas. Frontiers of grazing economies such as the llanos of Venezuela, the southern parts of Brazil, and the pampas of Argentina and Uruguay required only modest supplies of labor, so that African slaves constituted a small proportion of the local population. Only in the United States did the slave population reproduce itself dramatically over the years, supplying most of the internal demand for slave labor during the nineteenth century.In general, death rates were highest for slaves engaged in sugar production, especially on newly opened areas of the tropics, and lowest among domestic urban workers, except during periodical outbreaks of epidemic diseases.
  • The attack on the slave trade paralleled growing attacks on the system of slavery throughout the Americas. The selfdirected abolition from below that occurred in Saint-Domingue in 1793 was not repeated elsewhere, however. Instead, a combination of internal and external events eventually determined the course of abolition throughout the region. The issue of slavery became a part of the struggle for political independence for the mainland Spanish American colonies. Chile (1823), Mexico, and the new Central America States (1824), abolished slavery immediately after their wars of independence from Spain. The British government abolished slavery throughout its empire in 1834, effectively ending the institution in 1838. Uruguay legally emancipated its few remaining slaves in 1842. The French government ended slavery in the French Antilles in 1848. Colombia effectively abolished slavery in 1851, with Ecuador following in 1852, Argentina in 1853, and Peru and Venezuela in 1854. The United States of America abolished slavery after the U.S. Civil War in 1865. Spain abolished slavery in Puerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. Finally, Brazil abolished slavery in 1888.
  • Opposition to SlaveryThe eighteenth century formed the watershed in the system of American slavery. Although individuals, and even groups such as the Quakers, had always opposed slavery and the slave trade, general disapproval to the system gained strength during the later eighteenth century, primarily due to the growth of the Enlightenment, with its emphasis on rationality, and British Evangelical Protestantism. Opposition to slavery became increasingly more coordinated in England, and it eventually had a profound impact, with the abolition of the English slave trade in 1807. Before that, prodded by Granville Sharp and other abolitionists, Lord Chief Justice Mansfield declared slavery illegal in Great Britain in 1772, giving enormous impetus to the British antislavery movement. The British legal ruling, in time, freed about 15,000 slaves who were then in Britain with their colonial masters, who estimated their "property loss" at approximately £700,000.
  • In 1776 the British philosopher and economist Adam Smith declared in his classic study The Wealth of Nations that the system of slavery represented an uneconomical use of land and resources, since slaves cost more to maintain than free workers. By the 1780s the British Parliament was considering a series of bills dealing with the legality of the slave trade, and several of the recently independent former North American colonies—then part of the United States of America—began to abolish slavery within their local jurisdictions. After 1808—when Great Britain and the United States legally abolished their component of the transatlantic slave trade—the English initiated a campaign to end all slave trading across the Atlantic, and to replace slave trading within Africa with other forms of legal trade. Through a series of outright bribes, diplomatic pressure, and naval blockades, the trade gradually came to an end around 1870.
  • Slavery Scholarship and the Place of the Slave in the WorldThe topic of slavery has attracted the attention of a very large number of writers. Before the 1950s, writers tended to view slavery as a monolithic institution. Then, as now, there was much discussion of slavery, and less of the slaves themselves. Standard influential American studies, such as U. B. Phillips's American Negro Slavery (1918) and Life and Labor in the Old South (1929), Kenneth M. Stampp's The Peculiar Institution (1956), and Stanley Elkins' Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (1959), misleadingly described slaves as passive participants to their own cruel denigration and outrageous exploitation. In Phillips's world, everyone was sublimely happy. In the world of Stampp and Elkins, they were not happy—but neither could they help themselves. Apparently neither Stampp nor Elkins read much outside their narrow field—or if they did, they discounted it. Certainly the then available scholarship of Eric Williams, C. L. R. James, or Elsa V. Goveia is not evident in their works. Herbert Aptheker in American Negro Slave Revolts (1943), Gunnar Myrdal in An American Dilemma (1944), and Frank Tannenbaum in Slave and Citizen (1946) had tried, in those three intellectually stimulating works, to modify the overall picture, but without much success.
  • Conditions of Slavery
  • Then, in 1956, Goveia published an outstanding book, Slave Society in the British Leeward Islands at the End of the Eighteenth Century. As Francisco Scarano notes of Goveia's work: "Goveia's sensitive and profound study of slave society in the British Leewards … is doubtless one of the great works of Caribbean history in any language. The Guyanese historian revealed the ways in which, in a racialized slave society, the imperative of slave subordination permeated all contexts of social interaction, from legal system to education and from religion to leisure. Everything was predicated on the violence necessary to maintain slavocratic order" (Scarano, p. 260). Goveia's approach inculcated the slaves with agency, a fundamental quality of which earlier writers seemed incredibly unaware. Slaves continuously acted in, as well as reacted to, the world in which they existed.
  • But slavery was not only attacked from above. At the same time that European governments contemplated administrative measures against slavery and the slave trade, the implacable opposition of the enslaved in the overseas colonies increased the overall costs of maintaining the system of slavery. Slave revolts, conspiracies, and rumors of revolts engendered widespread fear among owners and administrators. Small bands of runaway slaves formed stable black communities, legally recognized by their imperial powers in difficult geographical locations such as Esmeraldas in Ecuador, the Colombian coastal areas, Palmares in Brazil, and in the impenetrable mountains of Jamaica. Then, in 1791, the slaves of Saint-Domingue/Haiti, taking their cue somewhat from the French Revolution, staged a successful revolt under the leadership of Toussaint Louverture (1743–1803) and a number of other local leaders. The radical French commissioner in the colony, Léger Félicité Sonthonax (1763–1813) saw the futility of trying to defeat the local revolt and declared the emancipation of all slaves and their immediate admission to full citizenship (1793), a move ratified the following year by
  • French colonies. Napoleon Bonaparte revoked the decree of emancipation in 1802, but he failed to make it stick in Saint-Domingue, where the former slaves and their free colored allies declared the independence of Haiti—the second free state in the Americas—in 1804.The fourth and final phase of the transatlantic trade lasted from about 1810 to 1870. During that phase approximately two million Africans were sold as slaves in a greatly reduced area of the Americas. With its trade legal until 1850, Brazil imported some 1,145,400 Africans, or about 60 percent of all slaves sold in the Americas after 1810. The Spanish Antilles—mainly Cuba and Puerto Rico—imported more than 600,000 Africans (32 percent), the great majority of them illegally introduced to Cuba after an Anglo-Spanish treaty to abolish the Spanish
  • he revolutionary government in Paris, which extended the emancipation to all
thabokhanyile

Changes in German Travel Writing about East Africa, 1884-1891.pdf - 1 views

AOT KHANYILE

shared by thabokhanyile on 22 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • The paper's editors wrote that Carl Peters's expedition to find the explorer Emin Pasha in the Egyptian province of Equatoria might be the world's last real journey of exploratio
  • The paper's editors wrote that Carl Peters's expedition to find the explorer Emin Pasha in the Egyptian province of Equatoria might be the world's last real journey of exploratio
  • ded, the paper concluded that further German exploration of Africa was too dang
  • ...29 more annotations...
  • The article's author declared that German colonialists would have to reorient themselves away from exploration toward new ways of exerting control over Africa.2
  • While travel, including exploratory travel, remained central to the German experience in East Africa after 1
  • arked the end of an era for how the German reading public experienced that travel. The style of travel writing about East Africa changed to fit the new needs of the colonial state and the reading demands of the metropolitan p
  • K), the founding organization of Germany's East African colony, repurposed the scientific travel narrative that had formed the entirety of their knowledge about East Africa before 1884 to further the organization's goals of building a colonial e
  • Travelogues were particularly important in German East Africa as compared to Germany's other colonies because the GfdK began its acquis
  • «That of the encounter between a European explorer, the intrepid leader of an expeditionary caravan and emissary of s
  • tion of territory without the support of existing networks in the region and contrary to the Bismarck regime's wishes (Smith 32
  • tion of territory without the support of existing networks in the region and contrary to the Bismarck regime's wishe
  • International African Association exploratory expedition, a hunting trip, a scientific expedition, or an English trading expedition (Wagner 28).8
  • Scientific accounts of East African travel by German explorers and missionaries were prominent in Germany in the early 1880s, despite Germany's lack of a form
  • nths of existence, they suggested possible places to find such wide stretches. Their lack of knowledge of Africa was apparent in their proposals: Joseph Freiherr Molitor von Mühlfeld called for greater emigration to Argentina, Major Friedrich Wilhelm Alexander von Mechow suggested colonizing on the Kwango River, and Alexander Merensky recommended what is today southern Angola
  • Like earlier travelers, Peters and Pfeil went on lecture tours and presented their travels to metropolitan audiences.1
  • The 1884 expedition's members followed the pre-colonial travelers' methods and published travelogues about their exploration and conquest.
  • They inspired him to dream up a plan to acquire land in East Africa. Great riches, he believed, were to be made on Lake Malawi. He suggested the region of Usagara, which according to Stanley held great hope for colonial development (Zur Erwerbung 5
  • Explorers frequently suggested that their travels served a higher calling that would advance the progress of humanity. A calling beyond the self explained the explorer's willingness to brave danger and made him a hero to those who believed in the same calling. To promote their own bravery and skill in the eyes of European audiences, explorers had to convince them that the dangers they faced were beyond anything one could experience in Europe. Explorers traversed unknown places posing a great deal of personal danger and had to depend on aid networks of which they had little knowle
  • avelers drew comparisons between African societies and ones more familiar to European audiences.
  • Peter s's and Pfeil's travelogues fit many of the topoi of earlier travelogues about East Africa, but they sought to fix their travels as permanent markers on the East African landscape, to make German colonialism real in East Africa through writing.
  • Like earlier travelers, Peters cited European history to make his argument, but he used a specifically German history in a way that inscribed German cultural achievements onto the
  • ition» 304). In all of his accounts of East African travel, Peters resorted frequently to quoting poetry to demonstrate his Germanness or a European spirit of exploration. His historical references were not meant merely to make landscapes more familiar to domestic audiences, but served to make them specif
  • Travel for Hellgrewe was a series of short vignettes as he moved between stations of German
  • isen
  • Kultur in the East African wilderness; travel was not the long journey away from civili
  • Hellgrewe's book makes clear that the change in form could not be attributed solely to the lack o
  • new areas to explore. Hellgrewe still searched for the fetishized African wilderness that had motivated pre-colonial German travelers to East Africa and provided the majority of the material for their ac
  • Such was the state of travel writing as planning began for the German expedition to rescue Emin Pasha in 1888. Inspiration for the expedition had come largely from a travel narrative in the pre-colonial style, Wilhelm Junker's Reisen
  • in Afrika. Junker had traveled in East Central Africa from 1875 throu
  • 1886. Near the end of his travels, he had become trapped in Equatoria when the Mahdi attacked Khartoum
  • Pre-colonial travelers had been able to establish their own myths through their expeditionary narrative, but Peters was not afforded the chance in the wake of his failed expedition.
  • ast Africa. Other forms of travel writing replaced the travelogue of African exploration prevalent earlier in the century. Expeditionary reports certainly remained central to German colonization in East Africa after 1891. As
mphomaganya

trade in ivory - 1 views

Mpho Maganya 219105796

shared by mphomaganya on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • mphomaganya on 26 Apr 23
     
    Trade of ivory was centered around the existence of elephants, without the tusk and teeth of the elephants there could not have been the trade in ivory. Elephants were hunted so that ivory can be extracted from them.
buhlebendalo

Negotiating Identity in Contested Space: African Christians, White Missionaries and the... - 0 views

doi.org/...00232080485380071

Buhle Njiyela History 2A 2023

shared by buhlebendalo on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • buhlebendalo on 26 Apr 23
     
    African Christians, white missionaries , and Boers were fighting to exist in southern Africa at the Blouberg Mountains and the Transvaal.
nkosithand

Paraphrasing Tool - QuillBot AI - 1 views

quillbot.com

American explorers of Africa were the who explored Africa. They that in there is an existence a race pygmies. One gorillas and killed them. Du Chaillu broke much fresh ground unknown hinterland between equator Congo .He also Ogowe river . existance Africa

shared by nkosithand on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • ujhistprof on 02 Jun 23
     
    You do know that this is a tool used by students plagiarising.
t222227229

26 Famous Explorers From History to Modern Times - 1 views

www.muchbetteradventures.com/...famous-explorers

Thabisile Mthimunye History 2A

shared by t222227229 on 26 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Famous explorers exist through the centuries. Ever since humans got the urge to travel, people have been exploring. As technology progressed, the quicker people could travel and the deeper people could explore into the corners of the world. These explorers’ expeditions comes in all shapes and sizes – from those who ventured into solo travel to those who took whole crews with them.
    • t222227229
      t222227229 on 26 Apr 23
       
      this portion talks about how explorers exist through the centuries and they have been exploring.
  • Here is a list of 11 explorers who are all long gone, but pioneered some form of adventurous exploration.
    • t222227229
      t222227229 on 26 Apr 23
       
      on this part they are going to list explorers.
molefet

January 7, 1885 - Document - Nineteenth Century Collections Online - 3 views

go.gale.com/...retrieve.do

Thandi Molefe

shared by molefet on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Arabs, attracted by the immense stores ot ivory existing închis region, have combined their caravans and proceeded at intervals, with from 1,000 to 2,000 armed followers, through the Masai country on trading exoeditions ·' and though in many instances these caravans have been attacked and sometimes almost totally destroyed, the large profits deriyecl from the more successful ventures have tempted the survivors to persevere in their efforts In 1878 Ica led the special attention ofthe Royal Geographical Society to the . \ „_. „r fbi c roo-ion as a field for exploration, but the undertaking ££Ж£ У aU Ж* till the spring of .883 that they were finally in ľ nositi to send out Mr. Joseph Thomson with the means of conducting an expedition to survey it ; and in the meantime they had been forestalled oy the Gm mans, who dispatched Dr. Fischer to make a sc.ent.fic exploration of the same ľoúntry, 'who, aft'er carrying out his 1»*™*««^™* ~^ а "иЛ_П_Л returned to Germany, where his reports have awakened very great interest, and where, there is reason to believe, the information he has acqu.red will not long remain unutilized. _ - . ,. n The details of Mr. Thomson's still more successful journey now
    • molefet
      molefet on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is a report from Mr Johnson to Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice. This report was sent on the 7th of January 1885. Mr Johnson was sent to discover parts of Africa and to report his finding. This is a report on the district of Kilimanjaro and the findings.
  • Arabs, attracted by the immense stores ot ivory existing închis region, have combined their caravans and proceeded at intervals, with from 1,000 to 2,000 armed followers, through the Masai country on trading exoeditions ·' and though in many instances these caravans have been attacked and sometimes almost totally destroyed, the large profits deriyecl from the more successful ventures have tempted the survivors to persevere in their efforts In 1878 Ica led the special attention ofthe Royal Geographical Society to the . \ „_. „r fbi c roo-ion as a field for exploration, but the undertaking ££Ж£ У aU Ж* till the spring of .883 that they were finally in ľ nositi to send out Mr. Joseph Thomson with the means of conducting an expedition to survey it ; and in the meantime they had been forestalled oy the Gm mans, who dispatched Dr. Fischer to make a sc.ent.fic exploration of the same ľoúntry, 'who, aft'er carrying out his 1»*™*««^™* ~^ а "иЛ_П_Л returned to Germany, where his reports have awakened very great interest, and where, there is reason to believe, the information he has acqu.red will not long remain unutilized. _ - . ,. n The details of Mr. Thomson's still more successful journey now
masindi0906

Two Slave Brothers Birthed Africa's Oldest State Church | Christian History | Christian... - 2 views

www.christianitytoday.com/...hiopian-orthodox-tewahedo.html

Sindisiwe Gumede 220072035 History 2A

shared by masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • While the region had been familiar with Christianity for decades, the religion was soon to spread across Axum.
  • While the region had been familiar with Christianity for decades, the religion was soon to spread across Axum.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      Christianity had been practised in the area for many years, but it was shortly to become widespread across Axum.
  • Centuries later, when the first Muslims faced persecution, the prophet Muhammad instructed his followers to, “go to Abyssinia, for the king will not tolerate injustice and it is a friendly country, until such time as Allah shall relieve you from your distress.”
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      When the early Muslims began to experience persecution centuries later, the prophet Muhammad advised his followers to "go to Abyssinia, for the king will not tolerate injustice and it is a friendly country, until such time as Allah shall relieve you from your distress."
  • ...5 more annotations...
  • Abyssinia was also an early home to the three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Judaism entered Abyssinia with the Queen of Sheba and later with Jewish exiles and merchants from Yemen and Egypt. (The Jewish community still exists today, although many emigrated to Israel in the 1980s.) One of the earliest Christian baptisms recorded in Scripture was the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8 who took his new faith with him to his homeland. Islam came to Axum before it went to its second holiest city, Medina. This migration is known as the First Hijra, when Muhammad’s first followers fled persecution in Mecca.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The three Abrahamic religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, all have early origins in Abyssinia. With the Queen of Sheba and subsequent Jewish refugees and traders from Yemen and Egypt, Judaism first arrived in Abyssinia. (The Jewish community is still present today, despite the fact that many moved to Israel in the 1980s.) The Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8 was baptised as a Christian and returned to his native country after receiving one of the first accounts of Christian baptism in the Bible. Before spreading to Medina, Islam first arrived in Axum, its second holiest city. The initial Hijra, when Muhammad's initial adherents escaped persecution in Mecca, is referred to as this exodus.
  • Christianity heralded a new age in Abyssinia—the birth of advanced learning. A new class of people emerged fully devoted to learning and the cause of Christianity. As the first vocalized Semitic language, Geez simplified and improved reading and writing.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The advent of modern education in Abyssinia was ushered in by Christianity. A new group of individuals appeared wholly committed to education and the cause of Christianity. Geez, the earliest Semitic language to be spoken, facilitated and enhanced reading and writing.
  • oday, the Tewahdo Church has the most adherents of all the Oriental Orthodox churches and is second only to the Russian Orthodox in size among all Eastern Orthodoxy. (Most of the Oriental churches were eclipsed by the Muslim Crescent and their adherents relegated into minority status.) The Tewahdo Church, however, stayed autonomous despite its centuries-long isolation from the rest of Christendom.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Tewahdo Church currently has the most members of all Oriental Orthodox churches and is the second-largest among all Eastern Orthodoxy. (Most of the Oriental churches were overshadowed by the Muslim Crescent, and those who followed them were reduced to a small minority.) The Tewahdo Church, however, continued to exist independently despite being cut off from the rest of Christendom for many years.
  • This isolation may also have contributed to a theological rift between the Tewahdo Church and the rest of Christianity. The Tewahdo Church (whose name means “being made one” in Geez) follows the Coptic Orthodox belief in the complete union of divine and human natures into one perfectly unified nature in Christ.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Tewahdo Church and the rest of Christianity may have developed a theological divide as a result of this seclusion. The Tewahdo Church adheres to the Coptic Orthodox doctrine that the divine and human natures are totally united into one in Christ (whose name means "being made one" in Geez).
  • The Tewahdo church is the oldest and most venerated institution in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Its presence hasn’t only preserved and built up Christianity—it has created a repository of art, music, culture, poetry, and literature. While Christianity is no longer the official religion of these countries, the Tewahdo church continues to guide the moral, spiritual, and intellectual lives of its more than 45 million adherents.
    • masindi0906
      masindi0906 on 25 Apr 23
       
      The oldest and most revered organisation in Ethiopia and Eritrea is the Tewahdo church. Not only has its presence helped to strengthen and protect Christianity, but it has also helped to build a rich cultural, artistic, and literary heritage. The Tewahdo church continues to direct the moral, spiritual, and intellectual lives of its more than 45 million followers despite the fact that Christianity is no longer the recognised religion in these nations.
diegothestallion

The Ivory Trade and Political Power in Nineteenth-Century East Africa | SpringerLink - 11 views

link.springer.com/...978-3-030-42595-1_9

222058834 History 2A

shared by diegothestallion on 06 Mar 23 - No Cached
  • The Ivory Trade and Political Power in Nineteenth-Century East Africa | SpringerLink
  • Elephants from the East African interior were the innocent victims of their region’s increased connections to oceanic commerce during the nineteenth century. Americans, Europeans, and South and East Asians all demanded East African ivory in increasing quantities over the time-period, and elephants were killed to fuel their demand.
    • diegothestallion
      diegothestallion on 26 Apr 23
       
      The more ivory was demanded ,the higher elephant were killed to meet the required demanded ivories and to expand the ivory trade further.
  • This was part of a process through which ivory ceased being an object reserved for elites and became consumed by a wider stratum of society in the form of, for example, billiard balls, piano keys, and bangles.Footnote 1 Ivory’s increased commodification divorced elephants from most pre-existing cultural or symbolic associations that East Africans had of them, especially around prominent trade routes.
    • diegothestallion
      diegothestallion on 26 Apr 23
       
      This sentence provide examples of product that were produced using ivory, Namely Piano Keys and billiard ball. This are product produced using soft ivory that was found in East Africa
  • ...10 more annotations...
  • Elephants from the East African interior were the innocent victims of their region’s increased connections to oceanic commerce during the nineteenth century. Americans, Europeans, and South and East Asians all demanded East African ivory in increasing quantities over the time-period, and elephants were killed to fuel their demand.
  • elephants were hunted throughout East Africa since before the nineteenth century and elephants continued to survive in sheltered locales throughout the region, including in regions where ivory traders were long-known to frequen
    • diegothestallion
      diegothestallion on 26 Apr 23
       
      THIS SHOWS THAT EAST AFRICAN ECONOMY DEPEND MOSTLY IN IVORY TRADE BECAUSE ELEPHANT HUNTING DID NOT START IN 19TH CENTUARY BUT IT WAS TAKING PLACE BEFORE THAT, BUT DID NOT INTENSIFY COMPARED TO 19th CENTUARY.
  • South Asia was a major market for East African ivory by sometime in the seventh or eighth centuries and it was imported into China during the Song dynasty (960–1279).
  • Firstly, elephant hunters used and displayed ivory throughout the period, even though the demographic who comprised the primary elephant hunters shifted. During the first half of the nineteenth century, most East African elephant hunters were members of secret societies or part of age-grade systems that brought boys into manhood.
  • Elephant hunters also displayed and used ivory and other elephant products to distinguish themselves from other members of the population. Burton, for example, noted that Gogo ivory hunters’ wore ‘disks and armlets of fine ivory’ in 1858.
    • diegothestallion
      diegothestallion on 26 Apr 23
       
      THIS IS WHERE IVORY WAS USED AS A RITUAL TO SYMBOLISE THEIR BELIEVE OR TO BE ABLE TO IDENTIFY EACH OTHER IN IVORY MARKET OR IN OTHER COMMUNITIES.
  • The patterns of ivory consumption in nineteenth-century East Africa indicate that it became a product that was increasingly tied to chiefly status. Control of its distribution and trade were the functions of chiefs.
  • The importance of the ivory trade to political power in East Africa’s coastal and island regions has been interpreted though alternate dynamics to its importance in the interior. On the coast, access to and control of the ivory trade is often linked to understandings of the power dynamics between Omani and Rima populations.
  • In the interior, meanwhile, it has been seen to shape the relationships between pre-existing chiefs, rising militarised chiefs, and coastal traders.
  • The global ivory trade was increasingly integral to the construction of political power in nineteenth-century East Africa. In the interior of this region, chiefs, state-builders, warlords, and prominent traders sought control of ivory and its trade to buttress their political authority, symbolically, economically, and militarily.
  • This divergence was tied to East Africa being a global supplier rather than a consumer of ivory. Within East Africa itself, though, few members of the general populace sold ivory directly to the global market.
  • ujhistprof on 07 Mar 23
     
    Hi Micaela Will you edit your tag as follows: "Michaela Pillay" - use the inverted commas to make your name one tag. Thanks, Natasha
kwanelealicia

THE ORANGE FREE STATE GOLDFIELD.pdf - 2 views

Kwanele Buthelezi History 2A

shared by kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • Author(s): Peter Scott
  • Source: Geography , JANUARY, 1954, Vol. 39, No. 1 (JANUARY, 1954), pp. 13-20
  • Published by: Geographical Association
  • ...15 more annotations...
  • .2 Although some of the difficulties encountered in development, such as the provision of power, water, labour and transport facilities, recall the early days on the Rand, the scale of operations has been far gr
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Despite elements of the development-related challenges, like the need for labor, water, power, and road networks, are reminiscent of the Rand's early years, the scope of activities has grown significantly.
  • '"THE discovery of the Orange Free State goldfield ranks with the Kimberley diamond and Witwatersrand gold discoveries as one of the most outstanding events in the economic development of South Africa. The new goldfield will shortly assume a major role in the Union's economy, but partly owing to the great depth at which the gold occurs and partly to the intervention of World War II, its exploration and development have been slo
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The Author, Peter Scott argues that the finding of the Orange Free State goldfield is one of the most significant moments in the commercial growth of South Africa, together with the discovery of the Kimberley diamond and the Witwatersrand gold. He continues to state that the newly discovered goldfield will soon play a significant role in the Union's economy, but its exploration and exploitation have been delayed and expensive in part because of how deep the gold occurs and in part because of World War II's interference.
  • Published by: Geographical Association
  • Resources Development Council. The Free State goldfield thus provides a striking example, in contrast to all other goldfields and most other mining areas, of regional planning on a large scale.
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Thus, juxtaposed to all other goldfields and the majority of other mining regions, the Free State goldfield offers a stunning illustration of extensive planning for the region.
  • somewhat intermittently
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Intermittently means that in a way that does not happen regularly or continuously, in a way that stops and starts repeatedly or with periods in between.
  • Fig. 1. - Location of the Orange
  • Adverse mining conditions include intense faulting, high rock temperatures, and the presence of underground water. Although the area west of Virginia appears to be comparatively undisturbed,4 on the western flank both block faulting and minor faulting, with vertical displacements ranging from a few feet up to 1,800 feet, are far more prevalent than on the Rand
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is new interesting information.
  • Supply Whereas mine water provides about half the water requirements of the Rand gold mines, in the Free State mine water is generally too saline, except perhaps near the Sand River, for use in reduction plants. Moreover, partly owing to the lower rainfall and higher evaporation rate, the yields are generally too small to repay purification. Consequently, the Free State mines have to be supplied with substantially more water per ton of ore milled than
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      It is stated that while mine water meets almost half of the water needs of the Rand gold mines, mine water in the Free State is typically too salty to be used in reduction plants, with the possible exception of the area surrounding the Sand River. Moreover, the yields are typically too low to justify purification, in part due to the reduced rainfall and higher evaporation rate. As a result, the Free State mines need to supply much more water per ton of processed more than the Rand mines do.
  • To supply the electric power requirements of the Free State goldfield, as well as those of the Klerksdorp mines, a power station, designed for an initial output of 210,000 kilowatts and an ultimate output of 300,000 kilowatts, is being built at Vierfontein, about 55 miles north of Odendaalsrus. Although its location was determined primarily by the local occurrence of substantial coal deposits, an important contributory factor has been the proximity of the Vaal River, from which water for cooling purposes will be pumped at the rate of about 3,000 gallons a minute ; in addition, the existence of the railway has facil
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      A power station, with an initial output of 210,000 Kilowatts and a maximum output of 300,000 kilowatts, will be constructed at Vierfontein, some 55 miles north of Odendaalsrus, to meet the electric power needs of the Free State goldfield as well as those of the Klerksdorp mines. The Vaal River is close by, and water for cooling reasons will be pumped from it at a rate of about 3,000 gallons per minute. Additionally, the railway's presence made it easier to assemble heavy equipment.
  • will be brought to the surface by endless rope ha
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The rope haulage system is the medium of transportation from the bottom of the mines to the top of the mines or the top of the mines to the bottom of the mines. In this transportation system, Rope, tubs, pulley, motors, tracks, and safety devices are used.
  • Since most of the goldfield is remote from the main roads and railways of the Free State, it has been necessary to augment preexisting lines of communication. The goldfield obtains the bulk of its iron and steel requirements from Pretoria and to a growing extent from Vereeniging and much of its machinery and equipment from engineering plants at Vereeniging and on
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      It has been required to expand already-existing connection channels because the majority of the goldfield is isolated from the main highways and trains of the Free State. Pretoria supplies the majority of the goldfield's iron and steel needs, with Vereeniging providing a rising amount as well. Engineering plants in Vereeniging and on the Rand supply the majority of the goldfield's machinery and equipment.
  • The development of gold mining has profoundly changed the settlement pattern. From an essentially dispersed agricultural type, with market towns each housing fewer than 500 Europeans, settlement has become predomina
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The growth of the gold mining industry has significantly altered the settlement pattern. Settlement has evolved from a largely dispersed agricultural type with market towns holding no more than 500 Europeans.
  • . Already one of the largest towns in the Free State, Welkom will soon rank second only to Bloemfontein. Allanridge, another new township, was started in 1950, and plans for further townships at Blaauwdrift and New Virginia, on the banks of the Sand River, have been completed. Within the next few years, as the developing mines begin producing, the rate of population increase will be accelerat
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      Welkom is already among the largest towns in the Free State and will shortly surpass Bloemfontein in size. Another brand-new township, Allanridge, began construction in 1950, and plans for two more townships, Blaauwdrift and New Virginia, on the Sand River's banks, have been finalized. The rate of population growth will quicken over the coming years as the newly developed mines start to produce.
  • f detached or semi-detached houses built by the mining companies. Eventually there will be seven villages, each of which, like the hostels, will house about 2,500 people. These resident families will provide the nucleus of a stable labour force, and it is hoped that the Free State will thus be less dependent than the Rand on a fluctuating supply of migrant la
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      There will eventually be seven communities, each of which will have roughly 2,500 residents like the hostels. The foundation of a steady labor force will be provided by these local families, and it is believed that the Free State will be less reliant than the Rand on a shifting availability of migrant labor as a result.
  • Population expansion due to the development of mining has not been confined to the goldfield. Kroonstad, 40 miles northeast of Odendaalsrus, and Bloemfontein, 100 miles to the south, have both undergone striking growth. Although the goldfield at present derives much of its supplies as well as its technical and economic control from the Rand, Bloemfontein, the Free State capital, is steadily gaining importance as an administrative, cultural and su
    • kwanelealicia
      kwanelealicia on 25 Apr 23
       
      The growth of mining has contributed to population growth outside of the goldfield. Bloemfontein, 100 miles to the south and Kroonstad, 40 miles northeast of Odendaalsrus, have both experienced remarkable expansion. Although the Rand now provides the goldfield with the majority of both its commodities as well as its technical and economic management, Bloemfontein, the capital of the Free State, is slowly gaining importance as an administrative, cultural, and supply center.
bulelwa

Ivory trade eradicated elephants from eastern Africa - Futurity - 4 views

www.futurity.org/ivory-elephants-1276882-2

Anathi Johnson

shared by bulelwa on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • trade
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      Based on this title, seems like it will explore how the ivory trade impacted elephants from East Africa in a negative manner. In essence, it will explore how the ivory trade destroyed the existence if elephants of elephants in East Africa
  • eradicated
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      The word eradicated means to destroy or put to an end completely.
  • Archaeologists
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      The study aimed to learn about the past history of humans and animals.
  • ...8 more annotations...
  • 19th century.
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is an important date because it links to the time frame that is asked in the Digo assessment.
  • Eastern Africa has been a major source of elephant ivory for millennia, with a sharp increase in trade witnessed during the 19th century fueled by escalating demand from Europe and North America.
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is the author's main idea. The author tires to insinuate that elephants' existence in East Africa was threatened by the high request for ivory from Europe and North America.
  • Isotope analysis
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      Definition is the identification of isotopic signature, abundance of certain stable isotopes of chemical elements within organic and inorganic compounds.
  • Desirable objects such as cutlery-handles, piano keys, and billiard balls drove the extension of global trade networks and the industrialization of the ivory-working industry
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is another idea that proves that the Elephant population was put to an end during the 19th century because their horns were used to make objects such as cutlery, piano keys, and many more.
  • on historic East African ivory and skeletal remains provided information about diet and therefore elephants’ likely habitat, which allowed scientists to figure out where ivory originally came from and to map elephant geography in the region
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This shows that it was through, Isotope analysis that made a scientist could see the origin of elephants that were used for the ivory trade.
  • vory samples traded after 1890 matched elephants living in forested interior regions of East Africa.
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This provides information that elephants that were used to perform ivory came from East Africa which is why their ivory samples match with living elephants in East Africa.
  • The findings, published in PLOS ONE,  support previous evidence suggesting that an increase in hunting resulted in the eradication of elephants from along the coast of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania by the mid-19th century, driving trade inland.
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This is another main idea, that suggests that the increase in hunting resulted in elephants being put to an end in places that are found in the East African region for instance Tanzania.
  • Today, elephants live in national parks and game reserves in these same landscapes, but are more restricted in terms of their movement than they would have been in the 19th century.
    • bulelwa
      bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
       
      This shows that in the 19th century, elephants were freed to move freely without guidance it was because of the rise of the ivory trade in East Africa that affected their movement.
  • bulelwa on 25 Apr 23
     
    A blog that narrates the effects of the ivory trade in East Africa in 19th century.
nkosithand

Black Explorers of Africa Pioneers in Pan-African Identity on JSTOR - 0 views

www.jstor.org/...44175159

American explorers of Africa were the who explored Africa. They that in there is an existence a race pygmies. One gorillas and killed them. Du Chaillu broke much fresh ground unknown hinterland between equator Congo .He also Ogowe river . existance

shared by nkosithand on 25 Apr 23 - No Cached
  • nkosithand on 25 Apr 23
     
    There are five slaves that were taken from their countries to other countries. One of the slaves went to school and became a teacher. When he was done with school he went back to his country to become a teacher and he published many books, he is considered as a first black explore of books in Africa. One of the slave was a first black explorer who explored route, he explored that there are routes that are used when travelling, when he was transported as a slave.
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