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Amru soon undertook the conquest of the north of Africa; after his death, in 664~ the Egyptian Governor, Okba~ seized Eezzan, founded Kairwan, and advanced as far as the frontiers of Marocco, which, since 618, had belonged to the Visigoths of Spain. After the battle of Maluya, all Marocco, as far as Ceuta, fell into the hands of the Arabs. The Berbers, who at first opposed, in a short time nearly all adopted, Islamism, and, for the most part, the Arab language as well. Sixty- six years sufficed for the Arabs and Islam to subdue all the north of Africa, fl'om Egypt to the Atlantic.

within tile pale of Islam. The sovereigns of Sokoto extended their power over Adamawa, and the father of the present sultan, iY[allem Adama, founded a new Mohammedan kingdom on the ruins of several pagan States, of which the most important was Kokomi. When the work of destruction was accomplished, the conquerors began to colonise and reconstruct ; after having ravaged immense stretches of country they attempted to cultivate it afresh ; and in order to establish political unity, destroyed a great number of natives, so that the scattered States, once joined under their seeptre, became available for extensive commercial relations. Thus, the explorer Joseph Thomson writes in the Contem- porary .Review that in comparing the degraded populations of the Coast of Guinea and the banks of the Lower Niger with those of the Central Sudan, what he saw there gave him a very different impression from what he had expected to see. Although he was in the heart of Africa, in the midst of veritable Negroes, they were very different from those he had met in his travels. He found there large and well-built towns, well-clothed people, behaving with self-possessed dignity; and everywhere signs of an in- dustrious community, highly advanced in the path of civilisation, carry- ing on different trades; the various metals were worked, stuffs were spun and dyed, and the markets were thronged with people. Savage tribes had been transformed into semi-civilised nations l Fetichism, with its degrading superstitions, had disappeared before Islam, which had in- spired the Negroes with a new and vigorous life. Thomson adds that Islam reigns at the present day from the. Nile to the Atlantic, and from the Sahara as far as the sixth or even the fourth degree north of the Equator.

According to Paulitschke, Islam is making great progress amongst the Gallas. The great tribe of Day has embraced Islamism, while the Walashi and Garura have remained pagan. However this may be, the Arabs are found everywhere in Eastern Africa, either in colonies of a few families, or as travellers. They are to be met with in all the towns of any importance in Southern Africa as far as the colony of Natal and Cape Town. Nevertheless, they do not sensibly influence the population there.

Henry Morton Stanley's first African expedition was in 1871, on assignment for The New York (/places/united-states-and-canada/us-political-geography/new-york) Herald to find Livingstone, who was assumed dead. Stanley's famous question upon finding him, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" made Stanley a household name in the explorer frenzy that followed Livingstone's journeys. Although not a scientist, Stanley was sent back out to answer the geographic questions left following Livingstone's death in 1873. Among these, Stanley set out in 1874 to circumnavigate the enormous Lake Victoria to see if it was a single body of water, and—more importantly—to see if it was the much-sought-after source of the Nile River. Stanley also planned to circumnavigate Lake Tanganyika (/places/africa/african-physical-geography/laketanganyika), to see if it was the source of the Nile, as Burton had suggested. Finally, Stanley planned to finish Livingstone's work of mapping the Lualaba River. Livingstone had theorized that the Lualaba, which flowed from Lake Bangweolo, was quite possibly the Nile itself. (Others thought that the Lualaba was the same as the Congo River, not the Nile.)

British missionary David Livingstone (/people/history/explorers-travelers-and-conquerorsbiographies/david-livingstone) (1813-1873), while partly on a quest to seek the elusive source of the Nile, discovered the Zambezi River and Victoria Falls (/places/africa/african-physicalgeography/victoria-falls). Livingstone's expedition went on to discover parts of the main network of Africa's largest rivers, including the Congo, but his work remained unfinished, leaving many questions that Stanley would soon answer.

Richard Francis Burton (1821-1890) and John Hanning Speke (/people/history/explorers-travelers-and-conquerors-biographies/john-hanning-speke) (18271864) explored part of Lake Victoria and a section of the Nile, and theorized that either Victoria or Lake Tanganyika (/places/africa/african-physical-geography/lake-tanganyika), southwest of Victoria, was the river's source

It took four months for Stanley to meet the banks of Tanganyika, but he circumnavigated it successfully in 51 days.

Verney Lovett

The Congo, as Stanley had now surmised that the Lualaba and the Congo were the same river, would have nearly 200 miles (320 km) of the most severe rapids he would encounter.

Stanley's journey also concluded what we know about the character of the Congo River: from its source, just south of Lake Tanganyika, the river begins as the Lualaba, heads southwestward to Lake Bangweolo, then turns north to the Zambia/Zaire border to Lake Mweru, where it becomes the Congo. The mighty river crosses the equator twice, placing it in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres. After 3,000 miles (4,800 km) of a wild path through extreme landscapes, it reaches the Atlantic Ocean.

nge. Second, we examine the introduction of irrigation technology to the region by the missionarie

lvation. The missionary's work on behalf of African development was depicted as a generous endeavor and one that would save the "poor benighted" Africans from spiritual d

t soon became apparent, however, that the people of southern Africa did possess a reli

Among the most prevalent "problems" recognized by the missionaries was the adherence to superstitions con? cerning the human ability to induce or withhold rainfall and the employment of so-called rainmakers during times of prolonged drough

stoms. The missio

ate a society and a

lations

Rainmaking was regarded as an obstruction to the uptake of C

Elephas

Loxodonta

For all of human history, demand for ivory was wide across the entire globe, from the Inuit who carved mammoth tusk to the Indonesian and Japanese archipelagos and most of the area in between. This was an effect of not just the usefulness of ivory, but also the fact that elephants inhabited areas in which they are now extinct. The Syrian elephant, for example, once roamed modern-day Syria and Iran. Scholars do not agree whether this was a subspecies which some have called Elephas maximus asurus, or an imported group of Asian elephants, an assumption based on an extremely limited bone sample remains that show a resemblance to Elephas maximus. A conclusive answer will not be possible until more fossil evidence is found to correlate to the evidence found in documents, coins, seals, and other man-made objects that suggest elephants were present in this region.

The second half of the 19th century brought many changes that affected ivory trade besides new distribution routes. The spread of large caliber elephant guns around mid-century made it much easier to kill elephants.

As with any object of value, ivory has always attracted a criminal element. In Song dynasty China, large tusks were cut down so they would weigh less than 30 catties (a bit over 40 lbs) to avoid having to sell them at lower prices on the official market. It is still common practice to hide lead weights in the hollow portion of the tusk (Fig. 7), since they are sold by weight.

Ivory has sometimes been called the plastic of the 19th century. In a sense, ‘plastic’ is an accurate description of ivory because it can be worked in so many ways and so demonstrates plasticity.

Not a single observation for latitude appears to have been made between Kirenji and the Tanganyika, although this country has been traversed very many times by European travellers.

, has been laid down from a rough Ms. map prepared by the traveller. Mr. Moir, in a note written on the face of his map in 1883, states that Mom- bera's is laid down from actual observations made at that place in let. 11 ° 37' S., and 30 ° 50' 30" E. ; that Mr. Stewart and himself subse- quently took lunars at the place, the result agreeing within a few miles.

at night, on the 19th, they camped close to Kambomba's town, which lies at the foot of the hills, immediately to the west of Mount Parasinga. There are between four and five hundred huts, and many sheep, but n~> cattle, as the tsetse abounds in the Loangwa valley.

On the 15th the road led through a level country and past severn} villages, the inhabitants of which were armed with bows and poisoned arrows.

"pelele,"

Most of the villages are inhabited by Basenga. It then climbed the hills to the village of the chief Chifungwi, a little thin man,

wana Hill, where Arabs trading in slaves and ivory, have a station, lies within this district.

with a small head, who wore anklets and Bracelets of brass-wire and beads. His people are Wasingwa, but Mangamba and other villages belonging to him are inhabited by fugitives from Unyika, who fled from the dreaded Merere.

Mombera to Kambomba, 27 h. 6 rain. 76"06 miles. Kambomba to Kirenji,. 41 ,, 22 ,, 112'59 ,, Kirenji to Karonga, 18 ,, 14 ,, 54"17 ,,

The western shore of Lake Iqyassa is partly based upon information collected by Mr. Donald Munro during a land journey from Bandawe to Karonga (Aug. 18-30, 1884).

The Luweya forms a small delta, enclosing two swampy islands, fringed along its lake shore by sand-banks about 600 feet wide, which are thickly covered with native huts, Ngombo's people occupying the southern, and Makambiro the northern island. The southern arm of the river (Lnweya-mufwa) leaves the main stream about 2 miles from the lake; it is 30 yards broad, 3 feet deep, and has a slow current. The dimensions of the main branch are similar, but its current is stronger. The northern arm (Chintechi) resembles a swamp rather than a river. The people who crowd the delta live in daily dread of the Mangone, against whom the swamps afford a certain measure of security. Their exhalations, on the other hand, are a source of much disease, and the many recently covered graves in the villages afford evidence of this.

The three rocky islands (" Chirwa," Chirupumbu, and another) in a broad bay to the north are crowded with huts, some of them upon piles. The adjoining mainland has a poor soil, notwithstanding which cassava i.~ cultivated, and food appears to be plentiful.

Leaving this bay, Mr. Munro climbed over steep hills, rising to a height of 1500 feet, and then returned to the lake, which he reached near a small bay dubiously called "Magwina" (" crocodile "). Wretched huts of fugitives cling to the hill- sides further to the north.

Patowtow is a beautiful little harbour, extending about half a mile inlaml, and bounded by steep hills. It affords excellent shelter.

Mr. M'Ewan left Bandawe on April 7, 1885, and, having been joined by Mr. Munro, started from Mombera's on April 14. The travellers eneamped on that day at the foot of the Kabo Rock---a mass of granite covering an area of 160 by 80 yards, and rising to a height of 80 feet. Mount Parasinga, a prominent peak, was clearly visible, bearing 269", and during the progress of the journey proved a valuable landmark.

Five miles to

e north of it a river of similar dimensions, the Chiwetwi, enters the lake. The country hereabouts is well cultivated by people from the interior, who spend the rainy season until harvest time in temporary dwellings.

Ruali, the first village of Uchungu, stands upon the lake shore. Its houses and inhabitants contrast very favourably with what is to be seen among the Atonga to the south.

Commander Young

Not a single observation for latitude appears to have been made between Kirenji and the Tanganyika, although this country has been traversed very many times by European travellers.

latitude

Mr. Moir, in a note written on the face of his map in 1883, states that Mom- bera's is laid down from actual observations made at that place in let. 11 ° 37' S., and 30 ° 50' 30" E. ; that Mr. Stewart and himself subse- quently took lunars at the place, the result agreeing within a few miles.

with a small head, who wore anklets and Bracelets of brass-wire and beads. His people are Wasingwa, but Mangamba and other villages belonging to him are inhabited by fugitives from Unyika, who fled from the dreaded Merere.

On the 15th the road led through a level country and past severn} villages, the inhabitants of which were armed with bows and poisoned arrows.

"pelele,"

at night, on the 19th, they camped close to Kambomba's town, which lies at the foot of the hills, immediately to the west of Mount Parasinga. There are between four and five hundred huts, and many sheep, but n~> cattle, as the tsetse abounds in the Loangwa valley.

It then climbed the hills to the village of the chief Chifungwi, a little thin man,

Mr. M'Ewan left Bandawe on April 7, 1885, and, having been joined by Mr. Munro, started from Mombera's on April 14. The travellers eneamped on that day at the foot of the Kabo Rock---a mass of granite covering an area of 160 by 80 yards, and rising to a height of 80 feet. Mount Parasinga, a prominent peak, was clearly visible, bearing 269", and during the progress of the journey proved a valuable landmark.

Mombera to Kambomba, 27 h. 6 rain. 76"06 miles. Kambomba to Kirenji,. 41 ,, 22 ,, 112'59 ,, Kirenji to Karonga, 18 ,, 14 ,, 54"17 ,,

The western shore of Lake Iqyassa is partly based upon information collected by Mr. Donald Munro during a land journey from Bandawe to Karonga (Aug. 18-30, 1884).

The Luweya forms a small delta, enclosing two swampy islands, fringed along its lake shore by sand-banks about 600 feet wide, which are thickly covered with native huts, Ngombo's people occupying the southern, and Makambiro the northern island. The southern arm of the river (Lnweya-mufwa) leaves the main stream about 2 miles from the lake; it is 30 yards broad, 3 feet deep, and has a slow current. The dimensions of the main branch are similar, but its current is stronger. The northern arm (Chintechi) resembles a swamp rather than a river. The people who crowd the delta live in daily dread of the Mangone, against whom the swamps afford a certain measure of security. Their exhalations, on the other hand, are a source of much disease, and the many recently covered graves in the villages afford evidence of this.

The three rocky islands (" Chirwa," Chirupumbu, and another) in a broad bay to the north are crowded with huts, some of them upon piles. The adjoining mainland has a poor soil, notwithstanding which cassava i.~ cultivated, and food appears to be plentiful.

Leaving this bay, Mr. Munro climbed over steep hills, rising to a height of 1500 feet, and then returned to the lake, which he reached near a small bay dubiously called "Magwina" (" crocodile "). Wretched huts of fugitives cling to the hill- sides further to the north.

Patowtow is a beautiful little harbour, extending about half a mile inlaml, and bounded by steep hills. It affords excellent shelter.

Bwana Hill, where Arabs trading in slaves and ivory,

The country hereabouts is well cultivated by people from the interior, who spend the rainy season until harvest time in temporary dwellings.

Ruali, the first village of Uchungu, stands upon the lake shore. Its houses and inhabitants contrast very favourably with what is to be seen among the Atonga to the south.

Commander Young

In addition, Richards notes that the firearm trade peaked in the 1830s (although he gives no figures for this peak), which again weakens the ‘slave–gun cycle’ theory. 13 Firearms were being imported well before the heyday of the slave trade and their importation continued to rise in many key slaving areas after its abolition.

This revolution brought about significant changes in the functioning of arms that made them more suited to warfare and hunting.

gunpowder with greater protection from rain and humidity, and made the process of firing much quicker. 30

firearms were more reliable, handled better and were more durable.

Whilst other historians have mentioned these military and political transformations, they have never been spelt out at such length or with such technological determinism.

nteraction between technology and change in Africa.

menacing and violent to justify full “pacification”.’ 43

Guns, Race and Power is an important contribution, but by no means an exhaustive one.

It also allows the firearms trade to be correlated with other plottable variables, such as hunting exports (ivory, feathers, skins), to reveal otherwise invisible inter-relationships for further inquiry

while imports of firearms closely tracked imports of slaves, a guns-for-slaves equation is too simple to describe the complexities of political transformations. Not only did guns play an ancillary rather than primary role in most African armies of this era, but for the most important states, guns [were merely an element in] a process of military transformation that was already underway.

most important of commodities traded into Africa were firearms, mainly due to the lack of local production,

In the eighteenth century, flintlock rifles were the main trade weapon to Africa, along with older matchlock versions. For the first half of the century, many improvements and alterations were made in the design and function of flintlocks but the real breakthrough came in the 1860s with the breech-loading revolution.

Pogge had successfully reached the destination of the journey and thus proven that the Congo basin could also be reached from the west.

European travelling to central Africa in the late 19th century: the German Paul Pogge

From there, the expedition intended to journey on to Nyangwe on the upper reaches of the Congo.

Pogge helped to create “the political and moral framework within which conquest would take place

This knowledge on caravan travelling was crucial for the colonial project, because, as Michael Pesek has shown for East Africa, the early colonial state was heavily reliant on the experience and infrastructure of expeditions

Explorers (as missionaries who shared these traits to a great extent) should thus remind us that colonialism was far more transimperially connected than historians have long accounted for.