diet enriched in fruits and vegetables (and consequently phytochemicals) was able to reverse the process and maintain and even elevate insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance
LPS-mediated effects are related to an increase in TLR4 levels that triggers the activation of nuclear factor-kB (NF-kB), a transcription factor that activates a cascade of inflammatory mediators [41]. These factors control the transcription of inflammatory mediators, such as IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, TNF-β, INF-α, INFβ, INF-γ
Inflammation can alter insulin action and give rise to diabetes and obesity by blocking insulin receptor downstream events, impairing insulin receptor substrate 1 (IRS-1) activation and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-dependent (PI3K) pathways, therefore compromising insulin signaling
systemic inflammation (generated by LPS) also increased neopterin levels in the urine and resulted in altered neuronal activity by decreasing dopamine (DA) metabolism
an increase in neopterin levels has been recognized a sensitive biomarker for immune system activation
Our experiments denoted that these diets were able to diminish inflammatory mediators and oxidative damage
Five branched chain and aromatic amino acids (isoleucine, leucine, valine, tyrosine, and phenylalanine) showed significant associations with future diabetes
there is increasing evidence that longer term high-protein intake may have detrimental effects on insulin resistance [68, 117–123], diabetes risk [69], and the risk of developing cardiovascular disease
high-protein and the high GI diets significantly increased markers of low-grade inflammation
significant and clinically relevant worsening of insulin sensitivity with an isoenergetic plant-based high-protein diet
healthy humans that are exposed to amino acid infusions rapidly develop insulin resistance
longer term high-protein intake has been shown to result in whole-body insulin resistance [68, 118], associated with upregulation of factors involved in the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)/S6K1 signalling pathway [68], increased stimulation of glucagon and insulin within the endocrine pancreas, high glycogen turnover [118] and stimulation of gluconeogenesis [68, 118].
it was recently shown in a large prospective cohort with 10 years followup that consuming 5% of energy from both animal and total protein at the expense of carbohydrates or fat increases diabetes risk by as much as 30% [69]. This reinforces the theory that high-protein diets can have adverse effects on glucose metabolism.
Another recent study showed that low-carbohydrate high-protein diets, used on a regular basis and without consideration of the nature of carbohydrates or the source of proteins, are also associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease [70], thereby indicating a potential link between high-protein Western diets, T2DM, and cardiovascular risk.
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