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"As far as I can tell, MK-4 is capable of performing all the functions of vitamin K. MK-4 can even activate blood clotting factors, which is a role traditionally ascribed to vitamin K1. Babies are often born clotting deficient, which is why we give newborns vitamin K1 injections in the U.S. to prevent hemorrhaging. In Japan, they give children MK-4 to prevent hemorrhage, an intervention that is very effective. Could that have to do with the fact that Japan has half the infant mortality rate of the U.S.? Today, I found another difference between MK-4 and MK-7. I was reading a paper about SXR-independent effects of vitamin K2 on gene expression. The investigators found that MK-4 strongly activates transcription of two specific genes in osteoblast cells. Osteoblasts are cells that create bone tissue. The genes are GDF15 and STC2 and they're involved in bone and cartilage formation. They tested K1 and MK-7, and in contrast to MK-4, they did not activate transcription of the genes in the slightest. This shows that MK-4 has effects on gene expression in bone tissue that MK-7 doesn't have. That being said, MK-7 may still have a place in a healthy diet. Just because it can't do everything MK-4 can, doesn't mean it has no role. It may be able to fill in for MK-4 in some functions, or reduce the dietary need for MK-4. But no one really knows at this point. Hunter-gatherers would have had a source of longer menaquinones, including MK-7, from livers. So it's possible that we're adapted to a modest MK-7 intake on top of MK-4. "

Maternal vitamin D status during pregnancy and childhood bone mass at age 9 years: a longitudinal study. Javaid MK, Crozier SR, Harvey NC, Gale CR, Dennison EM, Boucher BJ, Arden NK, Godfrey KM, Cooper C; Princess Anne Hospital Study Group. Lancet. 2006 Jan 7;367(9504):36-43. Erratum in: Lancet. 2006 May 6;367(9521):1486. PMID: 16399151 doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)67922-1 Interpretation Maternal vitamin D insufficiency is common during pregnancy and is associated with reduced bone-mineral accrual in the offspring during childhood; this association is mediated partly through the concentration of umbilical venous calcium. Vitamin D supplementation of pregnant women, especially during winter months, could lead to longlasting reductions in the risk of osteoporotic fracture in their offspring.

Defining Adequate Vitamin D Intake : Cross-sectional and Intervention Studies Viljakainen, Heli Tuulikki University of Helsinki 2008-05-23 Doctoral dissertation (article-based) Vitamin D is required for normal bone growth and maintenance of the skeleton throughout life. In Finland, like in many other Western countries, the population suffers from inadequate or deficient vitamin D status, especially during winter, which is thought to increase the risk of osteoporosis. New strategies to prevent osteoporosis are actively being sought. The main objective of this thesis was to determine whether vitamin D is feasible in the primary prevention of osteoporosis; does it affect bone mineral accrual during the growth period? A second goal was to ascertain whether seasonal variation in calcitropic hormones affects bone remodelling, and to elucidate the vitamin D intake needed to overcome this variation in different age groups. In summary, vitamin D intake remains inadequate among the target groups of this thesis, as reflected by seasonal variation in calcitropic hormones and bone metabolism. Dietary intake of vitamin D should be increased to achieve at least an adequate vitamin D status (S-25-OHD>50 nmol/l) and possibly an optimal vitamin D status (S-25-OHD>80 nmol/l) throughout the year. This could be accomplished by introducing new vitamin D-fortified foods to the market."

Calcium is essential for building and maintaining bone. Calcium combines with other minerals, particularly Phosphorus and to a lesser extent Magnesium to form the hard crystals that give bone its strength. Approximately 99% of the body's Calcium is found in the bones. The remaining 1% of Calcium is dissolved in blood and other fluids and is essential for maintaining healthy functioning of the heart, muscles, blood and nerves.

Vitamin D is very important for bone health because it plays a role in calcium absorption in the stomach and digestive tract.

(SACRAMENTO, Calif.) - Osteoporosis affects many women and can cause painful, disabling and even life-threatening fractures. Researchers from the UC Davis Department of Internal Medicine are seeking a simple, inexpensive way to prevent the disease. Strontium citrate is a widely available, over-the-counter dietary supplement promoted to "improve bone health." Strontium is a natural element found in bone in all people. Strontium citrate is another form of strontium ranelate, a proven medication prescribed across Europe and Australia to treat and prevent osteoporosis and related fractures. Unlike pharmaceuticals, strontium citrate is not a prescribed medication and is inexpensive.

Protective Effect of Total Carotenoid and Lycopene Intake on the Risk of Hip Fracture: A 17-Year Follow-Up From the Framingham Osteoporosis Study. Sahni S, Hannan MT, Blumberg J, Cupples LA, Kiel DP, Tucker KL. J Bone Miner Res. 2009 Jan 12. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: 19138129 DOI: 2009:10.1359/jbmr

(NaturalNews) Adequate levels of vitamin K play in a central role in the development and maintenance of healthy bones in children, according to a study conducted by Dutch researchers from the Universities of Maastricht and Utrecht and published in the journal Clinical and Experimental Rheumatology.

Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in vitamin D-insufficient hip fracture patients after supplementation with ergocalciferol and cholecalciferol. Glendenning P, Chew GT, Seymour HM, Gillett MJ, Goldswain PR, Inderjeeth CA, Vasikaran SD, Taranto M, Musk AA, Fraser WD. Bone. 2009 Nov;45(5):870-5. Epub 2009 Jul 23. PMID: 19631774 doi:10.1016/j.bone.2009.07.015 Cholecalciferol supplementation resulted in a 31% greater increase in total HPLC-measured 25OHD (p=0.010) and 52% greater rise in RIA-measured 25OHD (p0.05). In vitamin D-insufficient hip fracture patients, supplementation with cholecalciferol 1000 IU/day for three months was more effective in increasing serum 25OHD than an equivalent dose of ergocalciferol. However, the lack of difference in PTH lowering between calciferol treatments raises questions about the biological importance of this observation.

ScienceDaily (Nov. 25, 2008) - Researchers at the University of Toronto, Faculty of Medicine, Toronto, Canada, have discovered that adiponectin, a protein secreted from adipocytes, is a metabolic link that can explain, in part, the known positive relationship between obesity and both bone mineral density and reduced susceptibility to fractures.

Promotion of bone formation by fermented soybean (Natto) intake in premenopausal women.\nKatsuyama H, Ideguchi S, Fukunaga M, Fukunaga T, Saijoh K, Sunami S.\nJ Nutr Sci Vitaminol (Tokyo). 2004 Apr;50(2):114-20.\nPMID: 15242015

Vitamin K has been known as the coagulation vitamin, because of its role in the blood-clotting process. However, research over the last few decades has shown that the role of K Vitamins - and natural Vitamin K2, the menaquinones, in particular - has been greatly expanded. Of note, K Vitamins activity outside the liver is required for calcium utilization, the key factor in maintaining both bone and cardiovascular health.\n\nVitamin K2 helps to activate vitamin K-dependent proteins responsible for healthy tissues. In bone, it activates osteocalcin, a protein required to bind calcium to the mineral matrix, thus strengthening the skeleton. In circulation, Vitamin K2 participates in carboxylation of Matrix Gla Protein (MGP), the most potent inhibitor of arterial calcification known, lowering the risk of vascular damage.

Dawson-Hughes B. Interaction of dietary calcium and protein in bone health in humans. J Nutr. 2003 Mar;133(3):852S-854S. Review. PMID: 12612168

Krieger NS, Frick KK, Bushinsky DA. Cortisol inhibits acid-induced bone resorption in vitro. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002 Oct;13(10):2534-9. PMID: 12239242 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Kerstetter JE, O'Brien KO, Insogna KL. Low protein intake: the impact on calcium and bone homeostasis in humans. J Nutr. 2003 Mar;133(3):855S-861S. Review. PMID: 12612169

Sakhaee K, Maalouf NM, Abrams SA, Pak CY. Effects of potassium alkali and calcium supplementation on bone turnover in postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Jun;90(6):3528-33. Epub 2005 Mar 8. PMID: 15755853

Marangella M, Di Stefano M, Casalis S, Berutti S, D'Amelio P, Isaia GC. Effects of potassium citrate supplementation on bone metabolism. Calcif Tissue Int. 2004 Apr;74(4):330-5. PMID: 15255069 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Bushinsky DA, Krieger NS, Geisser DI, Grossman EB, Coe FL. Effects of pH on bone calcium and proton fluxes in vitro. Am J Physiol. 1983 Aug;245(2):F204-9. PMID: 6881337 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]

Frick KK, LaPlante K, Bushinsky DA. RANK ligand and TNF-alpha mediate acid-induced bone calcium efflux in vitro. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2005 Nov;289(5):F1005-11. Epub 2005 Jun 21. PMID: 15972386 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE

Bushinsky DA, Smith SB, Gavrilov KL, Gavrilov LF, Li J, Levi-Setti R. Chronic acidosis-induced alteration in bone bicarbonate and phosphate. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2003 Sep;285(3):F532-9. Epub 2003 May 20. PMID: 12759230 [PubMed - indexed for MED