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Cilium-related disease Ciliary defects can lead to a number of human diseases. Genetic mutations compromising the proper functioning of cilia, ciliopathies, can cause chronic disorders such as primary ciliary dyskinesia (PCD), nephronophthisis or Senior-Loken syndrome. In addition, a defect of the primary cilium in the renal tube cells can lead to polycystic kidney disease (PKD). In another genetic disorder called Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS), the mutant gene products are the components in the basal body and cilia[4]. Lack of functional cilia in female Fallopian tubes can cause ectopic pregnancy. A fertilized ovum may not reach the uterus if the cilia are unable to move it there. In such a case, the ovum will implant in the Fallopian tubes, causing a tubal pregnancy, the most common form of ectopic pregnancy.[citation needed] Since the flagellum of human sperm is actually a modified cilium, ciliary dysfunction can also be responsible for male infertility.[8] Of interest, there is an association of primary ciliary dyskinesia with left-right anatomic abnormalities such as situs inversus (a combination of findings known as Kartagener's syndrome) and other heterotaxic defects. These left-right anatomic abnormalities can also result in congenital heart disease.[9] In fact, it has been shown that proper cilial function is responsible for the normal left-right asymmetry in mammals.[10]

The Golgi apparatus (also called the Golgi bodies, Golgi complex, dictyosome, or more colloquially Golgi) is an organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. It was identified in 1898 by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi and was named after him.

The Golgi apparatus (GA), also called Golgi body or Golgi complex and found universally in both plant and animal cells

Mammals also evolved from reptiles, but not from the same group as did birds, and must have developed their double circulation independently from early reptiles. Nevertheless, several parallel changes occurred, such as the common incorporation of the sinus venosus into the right auricle. The most striking manifestation of different origins is seen in the mammalian aorta, which leaves the left ventricle and curves to the left. The aorta corresponds to the left half of the systemic arch, while the right is missing. The carotid arteries arise from the left systemic arch (aorta), though their precise position varies among mammals. The arterial system is asymmetric, as in birds, but in the opposite way.

The heart of both mammals and birds is a double pump, powering two systems of vessels with different characteristics. The left ventricle has a thicker layer of muscle around it, a necessary adaptation for powering its beat against the high resistance of the extensive systemic circulation throughout the body. The right ventricle has a thinner wall, consistent with its role in pumping blood to the lungs against a much lower resistance.

Hearts

The circulatory system