Children are potentially quite vulnerable to the effects of violence because violence exposure may alter the timing of typical developmental trajectories (Boney-McCoy & Finkelhor 1995). That is, violence initially may result in primary effects, such as anxiety, depression, or PTSD symptoms, which cause secondary reactions by disrupting children’s progression through age-appropriate developmental tasks. For example, exposure to violence in young children can result in regressive symptoms, such as increased bedwetting, decreased verbalization, or separation anxiety (Osofsky 1995). These symptoms secondarily may affect children’s socialization skills or ability to concentrate in school. Moreover, at a time when children may have difficulty with typical developmental tasks, exposure to violence can result in having to acknowledge and cope with adult issues. As Garbarino and colleagues note, “in Western culture, childhood is regarded as a period of special protection and rights” (1992:1). The home and the neighborhood, generally considered the primary safe havens for the child, lose those protective and comforting qualities in the aftermath of family or neighborhood violence
