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Xia-Shang-Zhou Chronology Project

scholars in disciplines including archaeology, astronomical history, early manuscripts and the parsing of inscriptions on bronze vessels and divination bones had made many new discoveries and synthesized the sketchy evidence.

''A history without chronology is no history at all,'' Mr. Song wrote in a newspaper article this fall. ''It can only be called rumor or myth.''

Yellow Emperor

771 B.C., when the Zhou Dynasty fell

19,000 gallons of oil.

Originally Evans believed the artifacts were ten thousand years old, but later experts dated these stone artifacts to be five thousand years old.

The layout of a courtyard in the palace hinted at a labyrinth type plan, the rooms, corridors and halls of various storage areas built in a confusing pattern.

How was the civilization destroyed? The destruction is apparent but its cause is not.

However, most experts have since decided that Crete was invaded and destroyed.

Zeus fathered a son, Minos, who became the King of Knossos,

Greek mythology immortalized Crete and Knossos with its legends

the remains of buildings spanning over an area of 8,480 square feet.

2000 BC.

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

s, Grafenstein, Münzenberg, Wildenfels, and Sonnenwalde, the first commissioner-gene

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

drich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelit

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelit

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

uded Prince Frederick

Princess

Princess

Friedrich

Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Prince

Prince

SOLMS-BRAUNFELS, PRINCE CARL OF (1812-1875). Friedrich Wilhelm Carl Ludwig Georg Alfred Alexander, Prince of Solms, Lord of Braunfels, Grafenstein, Münzenberg, Wildenfels, and Sonnenwalde, the first commissioner-general of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Queen Victoria, Czar Alexander I of Russia, King Leopold I of Belgium, and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. Not only well connected, but also handsome, highly spirited, and romantic, the trilingual Carl was educated both as soldier and courtier. Because of his connections, he secured prestigious military assignments, awards, and knightships, even though in 1839 he was sentenced by a Prussian court martial to four months in prison as a result of having absented himself from his command without leave. An early morganatic marriage, which had commenced in secret in 1834, dimmed his prospects after it became known, until, under duress from all sides, Carl consented in 1841 to the putting away of his wife, pensioned as the Baroness Luise "von Schönau," and his three children by that marriage. That same year Carl became a captain of cavalry in the imperial army of Austria, progressing though prominent assignments in the Balkans, Bohemia, and the Rhineland. While stationed at the imperial garrison at Biebrich, he read Charles Sealsfield's novel about Texas (see POSTL, CARL ANTON), William Kennedyqv's geography of Texas, and G. A. Scherpf's guide to immigrants to Texas. As one of the twenty-five members of the Adelsverein, organized initially in 1842 and reorganized in 1844, Carl worked tirelessly to promote the growth, finances, administration, and political acceptance of the society. He lobbied his many relatives, traveled incognito through France and Belgium to the Isle of Wight, where he may have met with Prince Albert, and, along with other members, secured the covert support of England, France, and Belgium for the Texas colonial project, which was at once philanthropic, mercantile, and political.

Prince

Prince

Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

eneral of the Adelsverein and imperial field marshal, was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Prince Carl's illustrious connections included Prince Frederick of Prussia, Qu

was born at Neustrelitz on July 27, 1812, the youngest son of Prince Friedrich Wilhelm of Solms-Braunfels and Princess Friederike of Mecklenburg-Strelitz

Carl was educated both as soldier and courtier.

An early morganatic marriage, which had commenced in secret in 1834, dimmed his prospects

Carl consented in 1841 to the putting away of his wife

and his three children by that marriage

That same year Carl became a captain of cavalry in the imperial army of Austria,

prince led the first wagon train into the interior of Texas.

secured the covert support of England, France, and Belgium for the Texas colonial project

1844 Carl was appointed commissioner-general for the first colony that the society proposed to establish in Texas

he traveled to London

then to the United States, and westward down the Ohio and Mississippi to the Republic of Texas, where they arrived in Galveston on July 1, 1844.

Seeing himself at the head of a migration of German artisans and peasants to what one of his colleagues called "the new Fatherland on the other side of the ocean,"

German princes, counts, and noblemen...are bringing new crowns to old glory while at the same time insuring immeasurable riches for their children and grandchildren."

Carl purchased land on Matagorda Bay for the establishment of a port of debarkation named Carlshafen, or Indianola

traveled extensively throughout Texas and advised the Adelsverein, which already owned the right to settle Germans in the remote Fisher-Miller Land Grant, to buy even larger expanses reaching southward from the Llano River to Corpus Christi Bay and westward to the Rio Grande.

December 1844 of the society's first settlers,

As one of the twenty-five members of the Adelsverein, organized initially in 1842 and reorganized in 1844, Carl worked tirelessly to promote the growth, finances, administration, and political acceptance of the society.

purchase from Juan Martín Veramendi and Raphael C. Garza of a fertile, well-watered tract on the Guadalupe and Comal rivers.

The immigrant train reached this tract on Good Friday, March 21, 1845, and founded the settlement of New Braunfels, named for the Solms ancestral castle on the Lahn River, southwest of Wetzlar.

Before

Prince Carl left New Braunfels for Germany on May 15, 1845, he saw the work on the Zinkenburg, a stockade on a bluff on the east bank of Comal Creek, almost completed and work well underway on the Sophienburg, a fort on the Vereinsberg, a hill overlooking the old residential section of New Braunfels.

arl resumed his military service, from which he had been given a year's leave, and on December 3, 1845 at Bendorf, he married Sophie,

widowed princess of Salm-Salm and the daughter of the reigning prince of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rochefort

1846 he published Texas, a clear and succinct geography and guide to Texas.

fifty-nine-page memoir, transmitted to Queen Victoria in 1846, in which he explained that Europe and the westering United States were on a collision course to dominate world trade.

America would likely win this race, Carl told the queen, if the United States reached the Pacific

He left the Austrian army and became a colonel in the cavalry of the Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1846.

An attempt to rejoin the Prussian army failed.

In 1850 the Austrian army accepted him again, and by 1859 he had become a brigadier with command of dragoons on Lake Constance.

took part in the unsuccessful war of Austria against Prussia.

In 1866

He retired as a field marshal in 1868 to his residence at the estate of Rheingrafenstein near Kreuznach on the Nahe River.

Prince Carl died seven years later, on November 13, 1875, at the age of sixty-three

Sophie died the next yea

r. They were the parents of five children, four of whom survived them.

Characterized by one of his German contemporaries in Texas as a "Texan Don Quixote" and by an eminent German historian as the last knight of the Middle Ages

His two fixed passions, for which he was acknowledged to have had an expert eye, were fine horses and ruined castles-to which, in the early 1840s, he added empire-building

highly spirited, and romantic, the trilingual

the Baroness Luise "von Schönau,"

Ahiababa, the son of a nobody

flayed all the chief men who had revolted, and I covered the pillar with their skins; some I walled up within the pillar, some I impaled upon the pillar on stakes, and others I bound to stakes round about the pillar; many within the border of my own land I flayed, and I spread their skins upon the walls; and I cut off the limbs of the officers, of the royal officers who had rebelled. Ahiababa I took to Nineveh, I flayed him, I spread his skin upon the wall of Nineveh.

At that time I fashioned a heroic image of my royal self, my power and my glory I inscribed thereon, in the midst of his palace I set it up. I fashioned memorial stelae and inscribed thereon my glory and my prowess, and I set them up by his city gate.

[I received] tribute from all the kings of the land of [Laqe], -- silver, gold, lead, copper, vessels of copper, cattle, sheep, garments of brightly colored wool, and garments of linen, and I increased the tribute and taxes and imposed them upon them. At that time, the tribute of Haiani of the city of Hindani, -- silver, gold, lead, copper, umu-stone, alabaster, purple wool, and [Bactrian] camels I received from him as tribute.

imperial rule of the Emperor Ashurnasirpal in the seventh century BCE

In the valor of my heart and with the fury of my weapons I stormed the city.

Emperor Ashurnasirpal describes how he lost political control of a city that he ruled

extended their influence toward Syria

their migration pushed other populations southward

culture and Indo-European language

irst conquest was the town of Nesa (near modern Kayseri, Turkey), followed by the capture of Hattusas (near modern Bogazkoy).

He was the first major Hittite conqueror to spread his control throughout Asia Minor to the coast. Labarna's successors pushed their borders southward to Syria. Mursilis I raided deep into the old empire of Babylonia, captured Aleppo, and set the kingdom's southern boundary in Syria. The Hittites spent the next two centuries quelling internal disturbances and fighting the Mitanni of upper Mesopotamia.

He laid down strict succession guidelines and possibly established a code of law

he two powers remained rivals for the next century

During a time of Egyptian weakness under King Akhenaton, the Hittites made gains in Lebanon at Egyptian expense

They also spread their power to the Aegean Sea, Armenia, and upper Mesopotamia.

The key battle in the ongoing conflict with Egypt took place in 1275 BC at Kadesh on the Orontes River. Pharaoh Ramses II led his army of Numidian mercenaries north to force his will on the Hittites once and for all. When two captured Hittite deserters informed the pharaoh that their army was still many days' march away, Ramses rode ahead of his army to set up camp near Kadesh. The two prisoners turned out to have been planted by the Hittite king Muwatallis, and the Hittite Army attacked the pharaoh without most of his troops. Ramses fought bravely until his army arrived; their appearance forced a Hittite retreat into the city of Kadesh. Without siege equipment, Ramses could not force their surrender, so he withdrew

The secret of the Hittites' expansion and superiority lay in the fact that they were the first power to develop the process of smelting iron in large quantities, a method that was probably discovered in about 1400 BC. In a time when everyone used bronze for weapons, iron weaponry gave its possessors a great advantage. Despite that advantage, however, the bulk of the Hittite Army was made up of mounted troops and chariots, from which archers fought. Iron weaponry conferred less of an advantage on those troops, but the Hittite infantry carried iron swords and iron-tipped spears and fought in a phalanx formation.

The Hittite kingdom recognized a supreme ruler, but a strong aristocracy made absolute rule difficult

An early form of feudalism was the basic social and governmental structure, with the local lords being responsible for providing troops in time of emergency.

The king maintained a standing army, however, especially as the empire expanded and garrisons were necessary to maintain control over subject populations. Further, the king maintained a personal guard of about 1,200 (possibly as many as 12,000) soldiers from Elam, and other mercenaries were employed as well.

had little authority and was forced to rely on the support of eastern dukes to maintain order.

growing millet in the north and rice in the south, cultivation of wheat, oats, barley, and lentils

.  Peasants served the nobles by farming specific designated areas for their respective lords

, each peasant was assigned acreage on which he could cultivate crops for his family.