Over the centuries, the trade in ivory has taken various twists and turns as the exploited elephant populations declined, as the demand for ivory changed with the economic prosperity of consuming societies or nations, and with the waxing and waning of the conservation ethos. Although detailed documentation of the ivory art is available, a comprehensive account of the historical trade in ivory is yet to be written.
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History of the ivory trade with special reference to Africa - Elephant Populations - 2 views
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Thus, both ancient India and China made extensive use of ivory, initially from their own sources and later through imports from Africa.
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The Islamic expansion during the seventh and eighth centuries a.d. encouraged Arab traders to send ivory into Europe. Ivory seems to have been used mainly for religious purposes at this time
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Ivory was a much-sought-after commodity for knife handles, combs, toys, piano keys, billiard balls, furniture, or works of art.
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It extended to more intensive slaughter of elephants, ostensibly to control crop depredation. Thus, the Hunt also served to appease the native people by controlling animals dangerous to their lives and livelihoods. The ivory trade was also inextricably linked to the infamous slave trade in Africa
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The East African trade was also dominated by the Portuguese from the sixteenth century until the nineteenth century, when it was taken over by the Arabs. Several ports along the coast, such as Mombasa, Kilwa, Sofala, Beira, and Delagoa Bay channeled supplies to Europe.
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The increase in demand for ivory meant there is a need for enslaved people so that they can transport ivory
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By the early nineteenth century, the East African ivory trade shifted further north along the coast to ports such as Mombasa and Zanzibar. Some of this ivory was destined to ports in the Indian west coast en route to Great Britain or China
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Zulu Warrior with Ox-hide Shield on JSTOR - 0 views
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The shield that the warrior is a holding is one that was used before Shaka Zulu came to power.
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Vol. 687 East Coast of Africa IOR/R/20/A/439 - Document - Nineteenth Century Collection... - 1 views
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Page 371, speaks on the conflicts that Britain, Egypt, France and Turkey had amongst each other for the control of Berbera the port. The used Gunboats as a sign of their power in order to intimidate one another. Even with the Turks ruling Zeila, they had to still use the advantages they had to control this Port.
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Zulu Expansion from 1816 ( Map image) - 1 views
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The East African Ivory Trade in the Nineteenth Century.pdf - 2 views
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THE EAST AFRICAN IVORY TRADE IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
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This suggests that East Africa may have killed many hypothalamus animals because their region had animals that had favorable traits when it comes to the ivory trade.
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THE East African ivory trade i
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The word "ancient" means a long time. This suggests that the ivory trade has been in practice in East Africa for a long time.
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East African ivory is soft ivory and is ideal for carving. It was in keen demand in the Orient because of its superior quality and because it was less expensive than that from south-e
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This suggests that East Africa may have killed many hypothalamus animals because their region had animals that had favorable traits such as having quality when it comes to ivory. Carving means: fashioning an object.
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But
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This shows that in nineteen century marked a good sharp increase in the ivory trade in East Africa. It may suggest that people started to be involved in the ivory trade if they were not involved.
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But it was in the nineteenth century that the great development of the East African ivory trade took place. An
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This information shows that the involvement of Americans and Europeans resulted in the ivory trade increasing more. With an increase in the ivory trade meant that animals such as elephants, and rhinos were being killed in huge figures. This is what the author suggests when he/she says, "This led to extensive exploitation of ivory resources" America's involvement does not shock One that the ivory trade was increased to a point where resources got exploited. It is because America is advanced and it had more money or things that East Africans needed.
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ncreased demand for ivory in America and Europe coincided with the opening up of East Africa by Arab traders and European explorers, and
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This information shows that the involvement of Americans and Europeans resulted in the ivory trade increasing more. With an increase in the ivory trade meant that animals such as elephants, and rhinos were being killed in huge figures. This is what the author suggests when he/she says, "This led to extensive exploitation of ivory resources" America's involvement does not shock one that the ivory trade was increased to a point where resources got exploited. It is because America is advanced and it had more money or things that East Africans needed.
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this led to the intensive exploitation of the ivory resources of the interior. Thro
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neteenth century, East Africa ranked as the foremost source of ivory in the world; ivory over-topped all rivals, ev
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This shows that East Africa was the best than other places in Africa that were competing with them when it came to the ivory trade.
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ntil the early nineteenth century, ivory was obtained in suf
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Until the early nineteenth century, ivory was obtained in sufficient quantity from the coast to meet demand,
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key event. This event marked an increase in the amount of ivory being obtained to meet people who demanded it.
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rade was lucrative,
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The onslaught on the ivory reserves of the East African interior in the nineteenth century took the form of a two-way thrust, that from the north by the Egyptians under Muhammad Ali, which penetrated southwards into the Sudan and Equatoria, and that from the east coast by the Arabs under Sultan Said of Zanzibar, following the transference of the seat of his authority from Muscat to Zanzibar in I832. Within a decade of Said's move to Zanzibar and the Egyptian advance southwards, the ivory traders were out en masse.
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Paraphrased to understand it The nineteenth-century onslaught on the interior of East Africa's ivory valuables took the form of a two-way
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den may do it in four months.' The two great inland markets for ivory were Unyanyembe (Tabora) in what is now central Tanzania, and Ujiji on the east coast of Lake Tanganyika.1
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Cameron, arriving here in i874, speaks of the 'special ornaments' here of 'beautifully white and wonderfully polished hippopotamus ivory'. These ivory carvings at Ujiji were exceptional
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The popular measurement of cloth in East Africa was the 'piece' or shukkah which, although varying in breadth, was always four cubits in lengt
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I am confused why is the article talking about the popular measurement of cloth instead of dealing with the ivory trade? .
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The ivory trader had to know his ivory, which varies from hard to soft. On the whole, the ivory of East Africa is of the soft variety. The d
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This idea is repeated, it allude that it was important to have soft ivory rather than hard because white ivory made more profit in sale.
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vory is white, opaque, and smooth, it is gently curved, and easily worked, and has what might be called 'spring'. Har
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ivory is white, opaque, and smooth, it is gently curved, and easily worked, and has what might be called 'spring'. Hard ivory, on the other hand, is translucent, glossy and of a heavier specific gravity than soft ivory; it is more subject to extremes of temperature and more difficult to carve.
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is
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Ivory tusks ranged in weight from the small tusks destined for the Indian market and weighing no more than a few pounds, to the huge tusks of 200 lb. and more which were regularly carried to the coast.13 Small
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This shows that there were different types of sizes tusks that were used for ivory. The small tusks allude that these rhinos or elephants were killed at a young age.
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d. The task of removal was much facilitated by using a steel axe, which the Arabs usually possessed, but the natives rarely. Bargaining for ivory required infinite pati
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This is animal abuse how can they use such This is animal abuse how can they use such dangerous objects on animals? A tool as an axe is dangerous it kills animals which may resulted in hypothalamus animals extinct. How can they use dangerous objects on animals? A tool as an axe is dangerous it kills animals which may resulted in hypothalamus animals extinct.
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The value of ivory was calculated in different ways. The African estimated its value by its size and qua
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ding. The price on the world market was remarkably free from fluctuations; no commodity retained such a stable price as did ivory in the nineteenth ce
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Nothing had a stable price like ivory in nineteenth, which means other products had increase and decrease over the price these times.
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enya to trade for ivory. The original plans for an East African railway were based on the assumption that the haulage of ivory would be a valuable source of revenue.3
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This shows that East Africa first planned that Ivory will be their source of income.
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'. The shooting of cow elephants was prohibited, and all ivory below io lb. weight (raised to 30 lb. in I905) was liable to confiscation. Demarcation of reserves also followed.
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This is good because if they give elephants a chance to grow they will be able to reproduce and maintain the population. Order to prevent elephants from being extinct.
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a.40 Instances of infringement of the game laws and trading in illicit ivory continued to come before the courts throughout the earlier twentieth cen
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This means that in the late 19th century not much illegal ivory trade were reported.
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Figures of ivory exports from East Africa during the early nineteenth century are not easy to obt
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Why is that so? was it because no one cared to calculate or there a many numbers of exports?
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Various figures have been put forth to show the number of elephants killed to supply the above ivory exports. Baker's estimate that 3,000 elephants were killed annually, to supply the ivory transported down the Nile during the i86os, may not be far off the m
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SUMMARY The East African ivory trade is an ancient one: East African ivory is soft ivory and is ideal for carving, and was always in great demand. It figures prominently in the earliest reference to trading activities on the East African Coast. But the great development came in the nineteenth century when an increased demand for ivory in America and Europe coincided with the opening up of East Africa by Arab traders and European explorers. The onslaught on the ivory resources of the interior took the form of a two-way thrust-from the north by the Egyptians who penetrated into the Sudan and E
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This is a source from the J store it talks about ivory in the nineteenth century. There is a link below that proves I was able to get it on the UJ database. I could not annotate my PDF straight from the J store due to technical difficulties not because I do not know how to annotate from the J store. My tutor said I should add a link to my source. This is my link below https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/179483.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3Afb9e9b59532f72e2bb9a12ae108a610a&ab_segments=&origin=&initiator=
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Trade and Transformation: Participation in the Ivory Trade in Late 19th-Century East an... - 1 views
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Trade and Transformation: Participation in the Ivory Trade in Late 19th-Century East and central Africa
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My interest in the literature on the ivory trade and in 19th-century thinking about trade and its effects on Africa arose out of my thesis on the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition
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The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition was one of the last major European expeditions into the interior of Africa in the nineteenth century.
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The expedition spent months in the forests of the Eastern Studies Congo, the frontier of the ivory trade at the time, and it was closely connected with some of the leading traders in the region
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Despite the expedition's name, it was as much about rescuing Emin Pasha's supposedly fabulous stock of ivory as it was about providing him with ammunition and a patron for his administration of Sudan's Equatoria province.
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The railway was to be funded by the stocks of ivory supposedly to be found inexpensively in the interior.
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Work on these aspects of the expedition led me to survey the literature on the late 19th-century ivory trade in East and Central Africa
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First, discussions of long-distance trade focus almost entirely on the slave trade, even when authors say they are going to discuss the ivory trade.
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This does not mean that the literature presents the ivory Canadian Journal trade as having had the same consequences everywhere or that it always o/~evdopment moved at an equal rate.
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The ivory trade is then said to have initiated a distinctive, predictable chain of consequences in these two kinds of territories.
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Further, according to the literature, by the mid-19th century, the ivory trade was mostly in the hands of non-Africans, creating a progressive denial of agency to peoples in the interior, which culmi- nated in the radical disjuncture of European imperial control.
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Finally, the literature assumes a clear connection between the demand for ivory and the supply of ivory, embodied in coast-based traders, though revi- sionist literature also assigns an important role to traders from the interior.
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First, ivory had important and widespread political meanings as a sign of authority and an item of tribute.
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This was frequently expressed in terms of rights to the "ground tusk:' the tusk from the side of the dead elephant that lay on the ground. Ivory had corresponding uses in regalia and displays of power, both material and ritual
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Third, societies involved in the ivory trade created their own sets of frontiers. These might include areas where ivory was acquired through hunting by members of the society, areas where ivory was acquired through Canadian trade with others, areas where ivory was an established item of tribute and, as Journal of~evelopment it became scarcer, areas where ivory was obtained by taxing or plundering Studies trade caravans.
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As Wright notes, while wealth in people - whether dependents, clients or women -was potential, wealth in ivory was relatively liquid and fungible, a strong incentive for both established leaders and "ambitious upstarts" seeking to acquire it (1985, p. 540)
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In both the Eastern Congo and Southern Sudan, coercion was an essential feature of the ivory trade in the late 19th century and a notable part of the accom- panying reconfiguration of political and economic structures there.
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E. PORTERS, CARAVAN ROUTES AND TRADE COMMUNITIES Ivory provided status and livelihood for porters engaged in transporting it.
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The ivory trade was crucial in the development of long-distance trade routes by peoples in the interior, particularly by the Nyamwezi and the Yao.
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Within the long-distance caravans, carriers of ivory had a higher status than did carriers of other trade goods (Cummings, 1973, p. 113). Porters who could carry the largest tusks single-handedly (up to double the standard load of 60 lbs.) were given special status and substantially larger food rations (Lamden, 1963, p. 157 and 159).
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Further information on the prestige and status that ivory trade gave the traders.
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This is a pdf with annotations derived from Taylor & Francis online journals.
Library - Diigo - 1 views
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The Transvaal, or South African republic.pdf - 1 views
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CLIMATE AND HEALTH.—The climate is sub-tropical, but not at all too hot for Europeans. It is dry, and the early mornings, the evenings and nights are, in summer, delightfully cool, making up for the oppression of the weather in the middle of the day. Spring and autumn are simply delightful, and the winter is of short duration. The rains do not fall in winter, but in summer, which greatly modifies the heat. I have often heard English people, fresh from here, remark that they have felt the heat of the English summer more severely than the heat of the Transvaal. Having lived there eleven years, I can confidently recommend any one to try our climate, especially those who suffer from pulmonary complaints, for which, on account of its dryness, it is specially suited.
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The temperature and climate were not too severe on the Europeans, which made their settlement in South Africa even simpler. This text demonstrates how readily adaptive South Africa was.
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The Transvaal affords varied and abundant scope for the agriculturist, and the horse, cattle and sheep farmer. The climate of the southern districts is more peculiarly suitable for the breeding of horses, cattle and sheep, the growth of cereals, vegetables, tobacco
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On the Central South African Tribes from the South Coast to the Zambesi..pdf - 1 views
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I found traces of tribes which do not now exist there, such as heaps of burnt bones of wild animals, none of domestic animals, and broken she
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The second group of non-existing tribes belonged to the regions between the Limpopo and the Zambesi. I found there ruins of locations. It is very well known that two hundred years ago there was an empire in Central Africa, with which the Dutch and Portuguese traders were well acquainted. We also know that there were provinces called Motapa or Monopotapa, but that is all the information we have about them. I am not sure that the ruins I saw belonged to this extinct race, but I believe so; they were generally in the vicinity of mines, especially gold mines. They were of stone, on the tops of mountains,put together without any cement, but so well fitted together that they have stood for hundreds of year
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This article's highlighted section describes how South Africans are linguistically and culturally diverse, with many different tribes living there, some of which are now extinct.
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When the Dutch came into South Africa and killed the game, they thought that the Bushmen would come down and work as servants, but instead of doing so they took refuge in their mountains, and when the game disappeared they shot the cattle of the Dutch settler
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When the Dutch settlers came to South Africa and took over, the Bushmen did not give into imperialism and instead moved as a tribe to an area that was occupied by the Dutch because they had their own way of life that would not have been accommodated by the Dutch.
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appeared they shot the cattle of the Dutch settlers. The result was that the Dutch treated them rather severely, shooting then down like dogs. In this way thousands of Bushmeni were slain, and not more than about two per cent. of the number existing a hundred years ago are now aliv
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because the Bushmen were not accepting of the Dutch and they did not succumb to the Dutch's instilled imperialism, the Dutch killed them and now there is a very small number of Bushmen alive if there's any at all
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But, strange to say, these Bushmen, who are regarded as the lowest types of Africans, in one thing excel all the other South African tribes whose acquaintance I made between the south coast and 10? south latitude. I have in my possession about two hundred sketches on wood and stone and ostrich shells, by various tribes, but everyone who knows anything about drawing must acknowledge that those which were done by Bushmen are superior to any of the other
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The explorer finds the Bushmen to be a superior tribe to the rest of the tribes in South Africa. They put it on it's own superior pedestal that the other tribes.
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They sketch them in their caves and paint them with ochre, or chisel them out in rocks with stone implements, and on the tops of mountains we may see representations of all the animals which have lived in those parts in former times
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the bushmen were more creative and artistic compared to the other tribes given that they had limited resources.
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Hottento
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These people are of the Khoisan ethnic group, who led nomadic pastoral lives and relied on herding, hunting, and gathering for their livelihood.
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Drunkenness is the chief cause of their dying ou
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They are therefore obliged to take to agriculture
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. But among the Betchuanas the men never allow the womeni to touch their cattle.
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They were so given to drunkenness that whole families died of hunger, because when a trader arrived there with brandy, they would give him the very last sheep they had got for
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they were easily swayed by alcohol, so much so that they would give away the little they had and be left with nothing all in the name of gratitude
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The Betchuanas regard their women only as slaves, but since ploughs have been introduced the women have gained more respect, and their work is confined more to the homes.
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Men and women had different roles, women were undermined and lived in a patriarchal system.
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The Republics of South Africa.pdf - 0 views
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in a few years it will have assumed such vast proportions as to surprise you. It is in the natural course of events that the construction of a railway from the eastern coast into these South African republics will develop the mineral and agricultural wealth of the country, and open up a market which would drain America of its surplus manufacture, and add tenfold to its prosperity. While I am telling you of it to-night, this very thing is in course of progress, and if it had not been for the interference of a foreign power who has sought to arrest the progress of the republics, seemingly for its own ends, the railway would be now more than half completed; but there is a power in Europe that would be glad to expunge the republics, and embrace them under her own rule as c
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The author notes that the British also wish to benefit from the natural resources and share that income, despite the fact that the region has the capacity to generate its own wealth through natural resources.
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know something of the Boers of South Africa and their republics. The Boers are the descendants of the original Dutch settlers of South Africa. The object of these early settlers was to establish an independent form of government in South Africa, and to this end they struggled all their lives. Boer is a Dutch word, which means " agriculturist." The Dutch have become almost wholly an agricultural people in South Africa, and hence they are called Boers or "farming people."
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The first European settlement in Southern Africa was founded by the Dutch because they intended to provide passing ships with vegetables and fruits that were freshly picked.
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only the Orange Free State has developed rich diamond fields, but the advantage accruing to the country from this has been less than the disadvantage; for it has only brought in a hungry crowd of fortune seekers, who have made their money and turned their backs with contempt on the country which ga
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he only difficulty being that each miner procures his own supplies. The South African Republic is beyond doubt one of the richest mineral countries in the world. In confirmation of this stateme
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he only difficulty being that each miner procures his own supplies. The South African Republic is beyond doubt one of the richest mineral countries in the worl
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. The Boer does not believe in the equality of the two races, and imbues the native with a great respect for his person
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Sympathy for the natives is thrown away; they are so happy and contented that you would be more inclined to envy them; they have all their needs require and to spare; they live with great simplicity; they are burdened with no more clothing than a mucha, which encircles the loins; their bed consists of a mat laid on the hard floor, with a piece of wood for a pillow, and a blanket or skin to cover them; their diet is entirely a vegetable one. Meat is a rare treat to them, and they can consume an enormous quantity of it; their habits are cleanly-hence, I suppose, the reason that sickness or disease is almost unknown among them; the interiors of their huts are generally neat and orderly; after eating their invariable custom is to rinse their teeth with a little clean water; their teeth are mostly dazzling white, and seldom or never decay. Polygamy is practiced by all the native.tribes; they generally buy a woman, subject to her consent, paying to her father the price in cows.
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Before a girl is married she is not allowed to work hard, or over-exert herself, as this would lessen her value in the matrimonial market ; but after marriage, she must hoe the ground and plant corn and fetch wood and water and cook, and perform such other labor as their customs di
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A girl must maintain certain qualities to uphold her value to be eligible for marriage or atleast valued in her marriage
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r in one house, or close together, and jealousy and bickering are unheard of. If a young man feels inclined to marry-which they usually do at the ages of sixteen, seventeen and eighteen years-he does not consult his purse, for he can do so without a cent, for the young couple can live with the parents of one or th
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Boers lived different lives to South African natives as they did not need to pay a cent to marry a girl like the natives did and still do
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An Ascent of Kilimanjaro.pdf - 1 views
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Read at the Meeting of the Society, 27 November 1922. SINCE Africa's highest mountain was first seen and approached by Rebmann in 1848, and since Sir Harry Johnston's pioneer work on the upper slopes in 1884, eighteen men and at least one lady had reached the icy rim of the great crater on its summit. The first Englishman to climb to the top was Mr. W. C. West, of Capetown, whose ascent was accomplished in June 1914. Dr. Foerster, a German settler at Moshi,
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this is a journal article by C. Gillman about some expedition in Mount Kilimanjaro. The writer describes the mount Kilimanjaro and how it was and the conditions there.
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NCE Africa's highest mountain was first seen and approached by Rebmann in 1848,
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on the upper slopes in 1884, e
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t Englishman to climb to the top was Mr. W. C. West, of Capetown, whose ascent was accomplished in June 1914. D
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anjaro, and t
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anjaro, and th
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Mount Kilimanjaro is located in the country Tanzania which in the Eastern part of the continent Africa. Kilimanjaro is one of Africa's tallest mountains at about 5, 895 meters and 19,340 feet. Many explorers, explored this mountain because it is well known in Africa and this mount changed how many explorers viewed Africa, it is well known that most Europeans viewed Africa as a continent that is
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AN ASCENT OF KILIMANJARO 3 line 5200 metres above the surrounding plains (800 metres) to the summit of Kibo (5930
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Of course, many of the tallest mountains in the world and a number of volcanoes on the central and South American plateaus are higher than Kilimanjaro at sea level, but their bases, whether mountain chains or plateaus, are already at a significant altitude, whereas here the slopes rise uninterruptedly for 5,200 meters above plains below(800 meters) to the summit of Kibo.
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ly ste
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y ste
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aphical base to the top. Many peaks of the world's big fold mountains, several volcanoes on the Central and South American plateaus are of course actually higher above sea-level than Kilimanjaro, but their base, be it a chain or a plateau, lies already at a considerable altitude, whilst here t
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AN ASCENT OF KILIMANJARO 3 line 5200 metres above the surrounding plains (800 metres) to the summit of Kibo (5930
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bove. From a base about 80 kms. in diameter, the slopes rise very gently at first, and, gradually steepening towards the summit, produce that slightly concave outline so characteristic of Kilimanjaro and of strato-volcanoes generally, and indicating the fact that the earlier lavas have been poured out in a much more liquid state than the younger ones, which were m
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The slopes rise very gently at first, gradually steepening towards the summit to create that slightly concave outline so distinctive of Kilimanjaro and of strato-volcanoes generally, and indicating that older lavas have been poured out in a much more liquid state than the younger ones, which were more viscous. The slopes begin at a base that is about 80 km in diameter.
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Structurally Kilimanjaro consists of three single strato-volcanoes, each of which has had its own
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Here the writer simply tells us that mount Kilimanjaro is made up three separate starti-volcanoes and each have their own history and origin
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-volcano. The three cones whose centres of eruption lie on an almost straight line running west to east, are Shira in the west, Kibo in the centre, and Mavenzi in the east. Shira, the oldest, 4000 metres high, is to-day only a ruin with the remains of its former crater-wall forming a ragged more or less horizontal spur protruding from the western slope of its
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The three cones are namely Shira, Kibo and Mavenzi. Shira is the oldest and is only 4000 meters high, while Mvenzi is only 5270 meters high and Kibo is the highest with 5930 meters high.
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eighbour. The second in age is Mavenzi, 5270 metres high, whose former crater, though much destroyed by erosion, is still well recognizable and opens by two deep barrancos towards the north-east. The centre is taken up by Kibo, 5930 metres, the youngest and highest of the three component volcanoes, and the only one which still shows an intact crater and a perpetu
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rin
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The Kibo summit is the highest point of climbing Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania located in the mountain's arctic zone.
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called Sa
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A plateau is a flat, elevated landform that rises sharply above the surrounding area on at least on side. Plateaus occur on every continent and take up a third of the Earth's land.
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tless small parasitic cones the .middle and lower slopes of the main massif. One of these cones, right down at the foot of the mountain in its south-east corner, has a large crater fllled by the beautiful emerald-green waters of lake Chala.
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limatic features of Kilimanjaro are determined by three main factors: (1) the mountain's position in the equatorial region of continuous trade winds; (2) the isolation of a huge mass of rock rising from a level plain; and (3) the great height above this plain which brings the upper regions of the mountain well within the zone of the anti-tr
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Anti-trades are prevailing winds from the west toward the east in the middle latitudes between 30 and 60 degrees latitude. They are also called westerlies.
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ins. The results are ascending winds during the day and descending winds at night, the mountain winds being stronger over the southern than over the n
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This are the results of trades that bring vapour from the Indian Ocean that blows and that's what happens as soon as they approach the mountain.
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slopes, because the former, being less steep than the latter, are more extended and therefore the air-column influenced by them much larger. It is these mountain winds which, by altering the horizontal direction of the trade as it strikes Kilimanjar
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The daily cycle is controlled by the mountain's winds, which change the trade's horizontal direction as it approaches Kilimanjaro.
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slopes, because the former, being less steep than the latter, are more extended and therefore the air-column inf
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alt
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it is difficult to understand this word, so it makes the whole sentence not to be understandable.
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opes, to arctic
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the weather there is drier, with less snow in the winter and sunny summer days
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o well dis
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KILIMANJARO FROM THE NORTH-EA
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KILIMANJARO FROM THE NORTH-EAST
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This picture shows how the mount Kilimanjaro looks like when one is viewing it from the north-east side. its a picture by C. Dundas
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MAVENZI AND THE SADDLE PLATEAU FROM THE CAVE ON KIB
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n the surrounding plains and on the lower slopes up to 1100 metres, xerophile grass- and bush-steppe. (2) From 1100 to 1800 metres, a broad belt of agricultural land from which the original vegetation?lower tropical rain-forest?has been largely exterminated by man. The rainfall averages 1 metre. (3) The forest belt between 1800 and 3000, with its two subdivisions of upper tropical rain-forest and temperate mountain rainforest, and an annual rainfall of from 2 to 3 metres. (4) The alpine grass and shrub vegetation from 3000 to 4400 metres, with a rainfall of less than 1 metre; and finally, (5) The alpine desert, where lichens are the only plant form that can subsist, on the whole extremely dry and with all precipitations falling in the shape of snow o
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the surrounding plains and on the lower slopes up to 1100 metres, xerophile grass- and bush-steppe. (2) From 1100 to 1800 metres, a broad belt of agricultural land from which the original vegetation?lower tropical rain-forest?has been largely exterminated by man. The rainfall averages 1 metre. (3) The forest belt between 1800 and 3000, with its two subdivisions of upper tropical rain-forest and temperate mountain rainforest, and an annual rainfall of from 2 to 3 metres. (4) The alpine grass and shrub vegetation from 3000 to 4400 metres, with a rainfall of less than 1 metre; and finally, (5) The alpine desert, where lichens are the only plant form that can subsist, on the whole extremely dry and with all precipitations falling in the shape of snow or
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This is something interesting about the explorers who were able to identify the five zones of Kilimanjaro and the meters they all have.
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ent-da
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A glacier is a slowly moving mass or river of ice formed by the accumulation and compaction of snow on Mountains. glaciers were found in summit Kibo all present day.
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n or meteorological con
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meteorological conditions are determined by the wind velocity and direction, the air temperature and humidity, atmospheric pressure and the stabilityy class.
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a peculia
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Kibo, however, shows a peculiarity, unique as far as our knowledge goes, in that its large central crater forms an island-like region of fusion, interrupting the region of feeding, t
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l
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latter thus being of annular shape and enclosing a dischargeless glacier ar
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The summit Kibo exhibits a characteristic that is unique to our knot in that its massive center crater divides the feeding zone into an island-like region of fusion and an annular region that is surrounded by a discharge-free glacier area.
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ior Commissioner of Moshi, Messrs. P. Nason and F. J. Miller, and myself. The first day's march of seven hours took us through cultivated Chaga Land in an easterly direction to the little kingdom of Marang'u, which had supplied the porters for most of the former expeditions, and whence a good path leads through the forest belt. This march across the lower slopes of the mountain entailed a good many ups and downs caused by the deeply eroded radial valleys, but it also afforded us a fair insight into the life of a most interesting people. Nowhere in East Africa have I seen anything approaching the high standard of culture that is exhibited by the sturdy inhabitants of the cultivated zone of Kilimanjaro
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little chieftaincies
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Grouped together in a number of little chieftaincies, the Wachaga are certainly a happy blend of the agricultural Bantu and the Hamitic herdsman. This is very probably due to the initiative of powerful and despotic rulers who, by imposing their will, led the masses to more intensive labour and thus to higher forms of civilization, and have understood how to make the best of the very favourable conditions which the well-watered mountain
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The explorers viewed the Wachagga as unquestionably a successful fusion of the agricultural Bantu and the Hamitic herdsman, grouped together in a number of small chieftaincies. This is very likely a result of the initiative of strong, despotic rulers who, by imposing their will, drove the populace toward more intense labour and, consequently, toward higher forms of civilization, and who also knew how to make the most of the favorable conditions that the well-watered mountain sloped offered. it is interesting that the slopes are watered
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o abe
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tropical forest, we rested on the lowest patch of grass at about 2000 metres. A further climb of a little more than an hour took us through the temperate rain-forest to the lowest of Dr. Foerster's huts (2730 metres), which we reached soon after noo
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rd but healthy work are well built, sturdy, and tough. To see their women balancing huge bundles of thatch descend along a steep and slippery path, slim and erect, is a fine sight. And as to the men, our porters gave a good exhibition of their staying powe
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e advantages of the cool dark shade. It probably requires the trained eye of the botanist to distinguish between the lower and upper tropical rain-forest. As far as I could see they both agree in their main characteristics, i.e. tall trees growing out into the light from a dense undergrowth, and large smooth shiny leaves adapted to a highly increased transpira
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It was difficult for explorers to distinguish the difference between the lower and upper tropical forest because they had similar features
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The abundance of moisture with which the plants have to deal during most of the year up there in the mean altitude of the daily mists is aggravated by the comparative coolness of the climate. Mere enlarging of the transpiring leaf surface and the tropical devices for letting the water drip off no longer suffice. Other means had to be developed to deal with the altered environment. The leaves again become smaller and are often covered with thin hair, which, while allowing the surplus water to drip off easily, may also be regarded as pro
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ht and heat there. The uppermost portion of the temperate forest consists almost entirely of tree-heather growing to a height of io to 15 metres. A most curious fact, and one which requires further investigation, is the absence of that bamboo belt which is found everywhere in East Africa above the rain-forest and, according to Uhlig, is particularly well developed on Mount Meru, only some 80 miles distant from
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I wish to add a few words on the economic function of the forest be
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he agriculture of the Wachaga, and with it their further progress towards civilization, but also the development of the European plantations in the lower regions of Kilimanjaro, depend in the first instance on that continuous and ample supply of water which the mountain guarantees them. It seems, therefore, of the utmost importance to understand clearly the agencies which influence this life-spending ele
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The mountain supplies the lower regions plantations of the Europeans with water. The question is why can't they just get water from rivers or even from the rainfall?
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e perennial stre
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perennial streams are streams that have continuous flow of surface water throughout the year in at least parts of its catchment during seasons of normal rainfall
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usal n
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But the meteorological conditions of the mountain are such that a considerable portion of the vapour-laden atmosphere reaches the
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regions above the forest before condensation has taken place, and the same is the ease with most of the moisture which the forest plants them? selves exhale again in the course
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regions above the forest before condensation has taken place, and the same is the ease with most of the moisture which the forest plants them? selves exhale again in the cours
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Did the explorers actually watch everything that happened in the mountains
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d awa
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Slaves_ruvuma - 2 views
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Slavers Revenge Their Losses" depicts a procession of men, women, and children led by Arab slavers; one of the guards is executing a captive who is unable to keep up with the rest of the group. These people were transported from Central Africa to Africa's east coast. According to the editor, the engravings in this book are based on "rude sketches" made by Livingstone. The date was June 19, 1866.
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Painting. The Defense of Rorke's Drift (Zulu War, 22--23 January 1879). on JSTOR - 2 views
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In this painting we see a depiction on the Zulu War against the British. On the left we see black men in Zulu attire so they are the Zulu warriors and the men of the right are the British Soldiers. The Zulu warriors are making use of Shaka Zulu's military tactics as we see them surrounding the British Soldiers.
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Diamond mine, South Africa 1872 - Stock Image - C021/6575 - Science Photo Library - 0 views
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This picture depicts the Diamond mine in Orange Free State, South Africa, . The Dutch benefited more than the worthy locals of the nation while black people laboured as miners in this field for very little pay while generating significant economic and financial gains for Europeans.
Fossil ivory: Annals and Magazine of Natural History: Vol 1, No 5 - 3 views
An Ascent of Kilimanjaro on JSTOR - 1 views
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