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School administrators and teachers grappling with the often confusing and contradictory premises of these popular initiatives can draw on three useful sources of information: (1) meta-analyses of research studies regarding program effectiveness and instructional practices that support and enhance achievement, (2) studies of the initiatives' effect on English language learners' English language acquisition and academic achievement, and (3) databases that compile language assessments administered to large populations of English language learners over time and across grade levels. Several myths about the instruction of English language learners do not stand up to scrutiny when examined through the lens of this research base.

The "One-Size-Fits-All" Myth

Schools throughout the United States use a variety and range of theoretically sound programs to meet the needs of their specific populations of English language learners, who vary in demographic and linguistic characteristics.

For instance, bilingual programs are appropriate and effective in schools that serve concentrations of students who use a common native language

In many schools, however, English language learners speak a number of different native languages; such schools often use English as the common language of content-area instruction. Therefore, some state agencies and language-minority educators advocate a mix of services and program types in response to each school district's demographic mix—an approach that contradicts the state laws requiring a default model of sheltered English immersion

The "Language of Instruction" Myth

But according to Education Week, cumulative and comparative studies based on National Assessment for Educational Progress (NAEP) scores suggest that statewide mandates limiting bilingual education in California, Arizona, and Massachusetts have produced "less-than-stellar" results (Zehr, 2008, p. 10).

Proponents of the ballot initiatives mandating sheltered English immersion argue that bilingual education is the reason for low levels of English proficiency among immigrant students—especially Latinos, the group served by the vast majority of the bilingual programs.

(Parrish, Pérez, Merickel, & Linquanti, 2006). The study found that students participating in English-only education programs had no statistically significant advantage in terms of academic achievement over those in bilingual education programs that parents chose through the waiver process under the law.

Thus, ballot initiatives have not realized their goal of improving English language learners' academic achievement.

In denying the injunction against the implementation of Proposition 227, the U.S. District Court in Valeria G. v. Wilson (1998) ruled that structured English immersion was based on delivery of English language and content instruction that was "sequential" rather than "simultaneous."

This focus is based on the belief that the "problem" facing these students is essentially a "language problem.

K-12 Program Continuity and Coherence Programs for English language learners must be proven models with a demonstrated track record. Programs must have long-term goals and continuity in the curriculum as students move up through the grade levels. As students' listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills in English grow, the focus of instruction should shift, and instruction should be differentiated according to students' language levels (Mora, 2006). Differentiating the curriculum in this way requires monitoring students' progress toward performance benchmarks in English language proficiency, literacy, and content-area learning (Gottlieb & Nguyen, 2007)

Targeted Professional Development Educators must view the education of language-minority students as a shared responsibility. Teachers must have ample professional preparation in how to use appropriate curricular materials and teaching strategies to promote English language learners' achievement. Both new and experienced teachers need intensive professional development above and beyond the teacher education coursework required by the state credential and certificate programs. For example, teachers should be knowledgeable about second-language acquisition and cross-linguistic transfer so that students learning in their second language can capitalize on the commonalities in literacy with their native language, regardless of whether their instruction is in dual languages.

Local school districts must have the freedom and support to establish sheltered English immersion programs and/or bilingual education programs depending on community values, parental choice, and available resources. Policies must allow flexibility in use of students' native languages—especially for development of literacy skills. In states with anti-bilingual mandates, local jurisdictions should apply liberal and open interpretation of petition and waiver requirements to support parent empowerment and involvement in program selection.

Research-Based Policies to Replace Politically Based Policies

enrich learning communities

engage new constituencies

flow of revenue;

access to higher education

assess best practices in teaching and learning?

Just because you can do something, doesn't mean you should

echnology both limits and enhances communication

Leaders are good time managers, but... Using technology is a new learning task that dominate

However, when you're starting out with tech integration, find a focus.

Ultimately it's not about how many apps we integrate, but about providing our students with the best access and opportunities to contemporary learning resources

4. Ensure that digital resources can work together.

5. Adopt policies that rank digital, media and social-emotional literacies as basic skills in the Digital Age.

6. Create trusted learning environments.

The shift to competency-based education will also take a lot of work because it requires a change in thinking and policy.

Ten Practical Implications for Teaching to Develop Agency

Young people from every background deserve teaching that enhances their agency.

Awareness that success in life requires agency is not new. However, we have tended as a society to treat its development as mostly a family and community responsibility, not a focus for policymakers, curriculum developers, or teacher preparation programs.

Empirical findings in the report are mostly consistent with what conventional wisdom would predict

The Tripod 7Cs Components

five categories of noncognitive factors related to academic performance:

Students’ perspectives concerning the teaching they experience can be valid and reliable indicators of instructional quality

teaching predicts a variety of agency related-factors that help prepare a student for success in school and life. These include the emotions, behaviors, and motivations that the student enacts in the classroom, in addition to the development of conscientiousness, future orientation, and growth mindset.

For happiness, learning, and high aspirations, we need high performance on multiple teaching components.

agency helps human beings fit into the environment, solve problems, develop and communicate our identities, and plan for the future. Therefore, it is fundamentally important that parents and teachers help to inspire, enable, and focus agency by the opportunities, instruction, and guidance they provide.