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Prepare ahead of time for your hospital stay.

Your goal as a hospital patient will be to avoid being a hospital infection statistic.

Plan for times you can't advocate for yourself.

How to Prevent Hospital-Acquired Infections

he only patients hospitalized are those who are very sick,

Hospitals are dangerous places to be for several reasons.

need surgery that can't be performed in an outpatient facility,

who have severe injuries. In all cases, these patients are at grave risk for acquiring infections, called "nosocomial" infections

According to the CDC, about 1.7 million Americans are infected in hospitals every year

According to the CDC, about 1.7 million Americans are infected in hospitals every year.

Know how hospital infections spread.

Almost 100,000 of them die

Your goal as a hospital patient will be to avoid being a hospital infection statistic.

While it is impossible to prevent every nosocomial infection, here are some steps you can take to attempt to keep yourself, or your loved one, from acquiring an infection while in the hospital:

While it is impossible to prevent every nosocomial infection,

Most are immunocompromised. Almost 100,000 of them die.

nsist on hand washing.

Choose the cleanest hospital for your care or treatment.

Choose a doctor with a lower infection rate.

Prepare ahead of time for your hospital stay.

Insist on hand washing.

Prevent the spread of germs from unsafe surfaces.

Insist catheters be removed or replaced as soon as possible.

Plan for times you can't advocate for yourself.

The aspect of Staphylococcus aureus and its genome that is most concerning revolves around the plasmids that are incorporated/associated with this bacterium’s genome.

Staphylococcus aureus was able to acquire antibiotic resistance through conjugation (horizontal gene transfer) of a plasmid containing a transposon

often code some type of antibiotic resistance.

Beta-lactam antibiotics target penicillin-binding proteins.

prevents proper peptidoglycan and cell wall formation so that cells will eventually burst as the bacteria attempt to grow larger (3).

econd, some bacteria can produce a modified penicillin-binding protein that no longer actually binds the antibiotic which again prevents the desired effects of the antibiotic (3).

The spherical bacteria is gram-positive (contains a peptidoglycan layer in its cell wall) and forms colonies that grow in two planes

High replication rates coupled with the great ability of to perform horizontal gene transfer (especially through conjugation) allow bacteria to develop antibiotic resistance and to spread it quickly

Less than 20 years after the first strains of Staphylococcus aureus were found to be resistant to penicillin, 80% of all strains had acquired penicillin resistance.

The decision to fight MRSA in hospitals revolves around three basic questions. First, is MRSA that much worse than MSSA? Second, how effective can we be in reducing the spread of MRSA? Lastly, is fighting MRSA cost effective?

Type I was isolated in 1961 in the UK, Type II in 1982 in Japan, Type III in 1985 in New Zealand and finally Type V at the start of the 21st century in Australia

In a paper by Deurenberg et al. two theories establishing the relationship between the first MRSA strains and present day MRSA strains are proposed. The first is called the single-clone theory which states that all MRSA clones or present day strains have a common ancestor.

The second theory is called the multi-clone theory. This second theory suggests that SCCmec was introduced several times into different Staphylococcus aureus. According to the paper by Deurenberg et al. the multi-clone theory has received greater support recently and it is from this paper that Figure 3 was taken.

he new antibiotic treatment policies did not prove to be an effective way of fighting the spread of MRSA infections in hospitals. The introduction of alcohol hand gel for improved hand hygiene did however prove to be very effective in reducing the spread of MRSA.

here was a 30% decrease in the spread of MRSA in the hospital. In the intervention hospital the introduction of alcohol hand gel reduced the spread of MRSA by 21%

The decrease experienced in the intervention hospital was likely smaller than that compared to the control hospital because the prevention measures of environmental swabbing for MRSA as well as chlorine disinfection of environments contributed to a 32% decrease in the spread of MRSA and these measures were not taken in the control hospita

It is even likely that these synergistic treatments can be used on other bacterial infections that are resistant to a variety of antibiotics.

After concluding that fighting the spread of and treating MRSA properly is crucial, can we be effective in preventing the spread of MRSA in hospitals?

The continued development of resistance to more and more drugs makes the treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infections and especially MRSA infections is becoming increasingly difficult.

have provided great insight as to what direction the fight against MRSA will be heading in

Staphylococcus aureus is a bacterium that naturally inhabits the skin and nose of humans. If the bacterium is able to enter the body (often through wounds or sores) it can cause a number of infections including those of the bloodstream which can become fatal.

quickly developed resistance to this antibiotic

hand hygiene in hospitals has been an effective way of decreasing the spread of MRSA in hospitals

Methicillin was first used to treat Staphylococcus aureus in 1959

Staphylococcus aureus is a spherical microbe and a member of the bacteria domain. This bacterium can be found naturally on the skin and in the mucus membranes of humans most importantly. In fact, Staphylococcus aureus can be found in the nostrils of up to 30% of people (1). The bacteria is spread most commonly through human contact be it hand-to-hand, from a wound secretion or mucus.

The majority of MRSA infections were wound infections (56.9%) with pneumonia cases being the second most common (21.0%). Potentially the most dangerous infection type, bloodstream infections accounted for 15.1% of the cases and urinary track infection accounted for 6.9%

Despite knowing that hospitals should prevent the spread of MRSA infections due to the risk of even further drug resistance over MSSA strains, and that hospitals can be effective in preventing the spread of MRSA infections, is it cost-effective for hospitals to implement the screening and isolation processes needed to fight the spread of MRSA (even though Staphylococcus aureus infections will undoubtedly occur in hospitals)? In other words, is the cost of hosting patients for longer periods of time, the costs associated with isolating patients

many strains of MRSA

often associated with hospitals and other medical institutions

When the bacteria attacks the organs – and it can be found in any organ in the body – it can cause a number of potentially fatal problems, including: endocarditis

Prognosis

Estimates have put the mortality rate in MRSA patients at somewhere between four and 10%; the numbers of patients suffering from the infection ranks at millions at any one time across the world.

kidney and lung infections, necrotizing faciitis, sepsis, and many more diseases of the organs. This is why it is vital that early

diagnosis is made.

2005, admissions were triple the number in 2000 and 10-fold higher

In 2005 in th

e United

States alone, 368,600 hospital admissions for MRSA—including 94,000 invasive infections—resulted in 18,650 deaths.

MRSA infections that are acquired by persons who have not been recently (within the past year) hospitalized or had a medical procedure (such as dialysis, surgery, catheters) are known as community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) infections, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

MRSA has evolved unpredictable resistance and epidemiology patterns in response to decades of successful antibiotic treatments that have been prescribed in all environments and have saved millions of lives.

The most frequent primary diagnosis associated with other S aureus–related infections was cellulitis and abscess, followed by postoperative infection, infections from an implanted device (Fig. 1), or graft and osteomyelitis.

As MRSA spreads into hospitals from the community, current insurance company and proposed governmental policies that penalize the healthcare system may be inappropriate.

MRSA infections that are acquired by persons who have not been recently (within the past year) hospitalized or had a medical procedure (such as dialysis, surgery, catheters) are known as community-acquired MRSA (CA-MRSA) infections, according to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Community outbreaks have been reported in sports teams, child care attendees, prison inmates, and diverse populations where habitation is relatively concentrated.

Hospital care — Risk factors for becoming infected with hospital-associated MRSA include the following:●Having a surgical wound and/or intravenous (IV) line●Being hospitalized for a prolonged period of time●Recent use of antibiotics●Having a weakened immune system due to a medical condition or its treatment●Being in close proximity to other patients or healthcare workers who are colonized with MRSA

The skin may have a single raised red lump that is tender, a cluster of "pimples", or a large tender lump that drains pus (called a carbuncle). The area may enlarge and become progressively more tender, red, and swollen. The center of the raised area may ooze pus.

People with infections of the lung, bone, joint, or other internal areas usually require blood tests as well as imaging studies (eg, x-ray, computed tomography [CT] scan, echocardiogram).

Prevention in the hospital — In the hospital, MRSA is commonly spread to patients from the hands of healthcare workers. To minimize this risk, patients and family members can help to ensure that anyone who comes in contact with the patient washes their hands or uses an alcohol-based hand sanitizer before and after touching the patient. Patients with active infection should also wash their hands frequently.

Prevention in the community — The best way to prevent and control MRSA in the community is not clear. The United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention has made the following recommendations [4]:●Keep hands clean by washing thoroughly with soap and water. Hands should be wet with water and plain soap and be rubbed together for 15 to 30 seconds. Special attention should be paid to the fingernails, between the fingers, and the wrists. Hands should be rinsed thoroughly and dried with a single-use towel (eg, paper towels).●Alcohol-based hand sanitizers are a good alternative for disinfecting hands if a sink is not available. Hand sanitizers should be rubbed over the entire surface of hands, fingers, and wrists until dry and may be used several times. Hand sanitizers are available as a liquid or wipe in small, portable sizes that are easy to carry in a pocket or handbag. When a sink is available, visibly soiled hands should be washed with soap and water.●Keep cuts and scrapes clean, dry, and covered with a bandage until healed.●Avoid touching other people's wounds or bandages.●Avoid sharing personal items such as towels, washcloths, razors, clothing, or uniforms. Other items that should not be shared include brushes, combs, and makeup.●Students who participate in team sports should shower after every athletic activity using soap and clean towels. Athletes with skin infections should receive prompt treatment and should not compete when they have draining or active skin infections.●People who use exercise machines at sports clubs or schools should be sure to wipe down the equipment, including the hand grips, with an alcohol-based solution after using it.

Always shower promptly after exercising.

Avoid contact with other people’s wounds or bandages.

draining or have pus covered with clean, dry bandages

Pus from infected wounds can contain S. aureus and MRSA, so keeping the infection covered will help prevent the spread to others. Bandages or tape can be discarded with regular trash.

Keep cuts and scrapes clean and covered with a bandage until healed.

Avoid sharing personal items, such as towels, washcloths, razors, clothes, or uniforms

Wash sheets, towels, and clothes that become soiled with water and laundry detergent;

use bleach and hot water

Drying clothes in a hot drye

If you have a skin infection that requires treatment, ask your healthcare provider if you should be tested for MRSA.

prescribe drugs that are not effective

against antibiotic-resistant staph,

Healthcare providers are fighting back against MRSA infection by tracking bacterial outbreaks and by investing in products, such as antibiotic-coated catheters and gloves that release disinfectants

Keep cuts and abrasions clean and covered with sterile, dry bandages until they heal.

Keep wounds covered.

The pus from infected sores may contain MRSA, and keeping wounds covered will help keep the bacteria from spreading.

Scrub hands briskly for at least 15 seconds, then dry them with a disposable towel and use another towel to turn off the faucet.

towels, sheets, razors, clothing and athletic equipment.

MRSA spreads on contaminated objects as well as through direct contact.

If you have a cut or sore, wash towels and bed linens in a washing machine set to the hottest water setting (with added bleach, if possible) and dry them in a hot dryer.

Shower immediately after each game or practice.

Sanitize linens.

Shower after athletic games or practices.

Scrub hands briskly for at least 15 seconds, then dry them with a disposable towel and use another towel to turn off the faucet.

Wash your hands

Sanitize linens.

Wash gym and athletic clothes after each wearing.