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Kylie John

Ants perform life saving operations - the only animal other than humans known to do so ... - 0 views

  • In experiments, they observed that the ants treated their nest members' femur injuries by cleaning the wound with their mouths before amputating the leg by repeatedly biting it, while the tibia wounds were treated with just cleaning.
    • Kylie John
       
      I wonder how the ant functions after this. It mentions that later the survival rate goes up but is the ant still able to do everything it used to? Like how ants can carry a lot more than their body weight, does that change for the ant after it got amputated?
  • The scientists are now extending their research to other ant species that don't possess special antimicrobial glands to see if other ants have the ability to perform surgeries. 
    • Kylie John
       
      Research oppurtunity?
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    This one has promise........
Kylie John

The Unexpected Villain in Plant-Based Diets - 3 views

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    Love this topic... but it would be a tough one. Look up "ISEF rules - vertebrate animals" to get an idea of how hard it is to get an vertebrate animal study approved where you are altering a diet in a way that includes feeding something suspected of having issues to animals. It isn't impossible, but it is very difficult. Often, we just shift down to an invertebrate animal. However, in this case, I don't think the variable of processed plant dietary items would transfer as well to non-vertebrate animals. And yet, I could be convinced otherwise if you can show me some other work done that says we might be able to gain worthwhile information from a study like that.
nataliegomes

Potential Pain in Fish and Decapods: Similar Experimental Approaches and Similar Result... - 1 views

  • how they provided guidance on general methods that could be applied to other animals such as decapod crustaceans.
  • indicate that responses of both go beyond those expected of mere nociceptive reflex.
    • nataliegomes
       
      Where is the limit between a reflex and a cognitive response?
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    I really like this topic, and it is one that is getting some current attention. so, we obviously cannot discern cellular-level factors with the nervous system of animals (and obviously- especially when dealing with pain response, we would have to work exclusively with invertebrates and the experimental design would have to be very well thought out. That said, behavioral studies where you have a really tight experimental design set up.... and you're recording behavioral changes... is likely feasible. If this is interesting, keep digging into pain vs. reflex studies, and also begin to look at invertebrate models that we can both successfully raise... and that have interesting behavioral responses we can readily discern in the lab.
Kylie John

A new path to new drugs: Finding alternatives to animal testing | Science | AAAS - 0 views

  • For example, researchers studying vitiligo, an autoimmune skin disorder, can directly assess how a potential intervention impacts autoimmune processes in skin tissue derived from people with vitiligo.
nataliegomes

Do Invertebrates Have Emotions? | The Scientist Magazine® - 1 views

  • He adds that he doubts that the findings are applicable to other insect species, which still might act purely on instinct.
  • Invertebrate nervous systems, physiology, and sensory experiences are dissimilar to ours, and designing experiments to measure their emotions has been challenging. 
  • If the responses weren’t purely reflexive, it would open up the possibility that the animals could feel pain. 
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  • After placing acetic acid—a mild irritant—on the crabs’ antennae, they found that the crabs rubbed their antennae against the glass of their aquarium, seemingly in an attempt to take the acid off.
    • nataliegomes
       
      The use of an invisible irritant rather than a notable injury shows that they can feel the pain, instead of just noticing an injury to their body.
Kylie John

Dice snakes fake their own death, smearing themselves with blood and poop to make the p... - 1 views

  • Only one juvenile snake bled from the mouth
    • Kylie John
       
      How do they do that??
emmarrogers

Sustaining America's Aquatic Biodiversity - Crayfish Biodiversity and Conservation | VC... - 0 views

  • Crayfish are ecologically and economically valuable animals.
  • nearly 75 percent crayfish.
  • Crayfish are important indicators of water quality
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  • sensitive to water pollution
katherine-medina

Frontiers | Overview of Carbon Capture Technology: Microalgal Biorefinery Concept and S... - 2 views

  • The impending danger of climate change and pollution can now be seen on the world panorama. The concentration of CO2, the most important Green House Gas (GHG), has reached to formidable levels.
    • Sean Nash
       
      OK: Is it an important field of study? Check. Is it timely? Check. Is it feasible? Let's see...
  • (iii) microalgae cultivation
    • Sean Nash
       
      You can instantly tell that there would be a strong math component to this work. You would need to show how your finding scale up to total carbon sequestered via whatever method? Biofuel production perhaps?
  • Furthermore, microalgae can be fed with notorious waste gasses such as CO2 and NOx, SOx from flue gas, inorganic and organic carbon, N, P and other pollutants from agricultural, industrial and sewage wastewater sources so as to provide us with opportunities to transform them into bioenergy, valuable products and forms that cause least harm to the environment
    • Sean Nash
       
      OK, so... you could likely create a biofuel from algae produced via the insertion of CO2 into a bioreactor system (perhaps even test the one you have vs. a creation fo your own to maximize growth with a more powerful set of lights and extensive tubing). Right off the top of my head, I know we can easily access commercial CO2 canisters that are used in aquarium setups to boost plant growth. Fluval makes such canisters. You would have to find out the volume/mass of CO2 contained in one. You'd have to be less concerned with toxins of you are able to choose a different algae for this capture vs. the rather toxic species you worked with last year.
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  • The uncomplicated cellular structures and rapid growth of microalgae endow them with CO2 fixation efficiency as higher as 10–50 folds than terrestrial plants
  • Recently, many research studies have come up showing the positive impact of growing microalgae under high concentrations of Ci in the form of pure gaseous CO2, real or simulated flue gas, or soluble carbonate (bicarbonate), reporting increased carbon bio-fixation and biomass productivity
    • Sean Nash
       
      How does the carbon concentration of such things as flue gas (from industry) compare to the levels in a commercially-available CO2 canister? I'm assuming those are lower, but that's OK. You would just need to be able to do the math to compare the ratios. Also, there is nothing that says you couldn't perhaps use multiple canisters to boost the CO2 levels assuming they could survive in whatever concentration you're feeding them with. It does acidify water.
  • Despite such remarkable potential, the production of microalgae for low-value bulk products, such as proteins for food/feed applications, fatty acids for nutraceuticals or bulk products such as biofuels, is heretofore, not economically feasible
    • Sean Nash
       
      So... this asserts that biofuel production (which would already be better than using human food crops such as corn) is not economically feasible. Let's find out WHY it isn't. What do the numbers look like? What is missing? Is there a way to engineer a process that boosts economic feasibility through some innovation?
  • The microalgal biomass majorly constituted of lipids (7–23%), proteins (6–71%) and carbohydrates (5–64%), depending upon the microalgal specie and culture conditions
    • Sean Nash
       
      Start searching for data on the differences of these compounds in algal cultures of various species. Finding the right species in terms of the components produced (though perhaps your process will boost these numbers in some way- verified by testing at a local lab). I would query perplexity to find papers that outline what components are produced by what species.... then you can compare that to the ease of culture of different species.
  • Biofuels from microalgae, production system, conversion technologies, life cycle analyses have been extensively reviewed, hence detailed description is not presented in this review.
    • Sean Nash
       
      This clearly suggests that a TON of work has been done in these areas. The negative? -> Harder to find original work, the positive -> here is a TON of search terms to build up your background knowledge on primary research in these areas. The real creativity in science often stems from finding a unique wrinkle that is embedded in extensive work.
  • the lipid content of common microalgae such as Chlorella, Dunaliella, Isochrysis, Nannochloris, Nannochloropsis, Neochloris, Phaeodactylum, Porphyridium, and Schizochytrium, varies between 20 and 50% of cell dry weight
    • Sean Nash
       
      So, fat production is what is important in biodiesel. That is why a former student of mine utilized kitchen fry oil (used) for the production of biodiesel back in the 90s. Look up the lipid content of each of these species and check that against their toxicity and ease of growing/working with/etc.
  • can be augmented to higher levels by manipulating environmental and other growth factors, process optimization and genetic modifications of the production strain. Nitrogen starvation and salinity stress are known to induce an increase in TAG (triacylglycerol) accumulation and relative content of oleic acid in most of the microalgal species
    • Sean Nash
       
      So, this suggests already some ways in which the lipid content can be augmented via the manipulation of several variables in growth factors. There might ba an angle here.
  • C14:0, C16:0, C18:1, C18:2, and C18:3 fatty acids, yet the relative composition varies from species to species
    • Sean Nash
       
      I'm confident that we can find a local lab that can help us test the length of chain that indicates exactly which fatty acids are being produced and perhaps how that ratio changes based upon some variable in your process.
  • The lipids can be converted into FAMEs (fatty acid methyl esters) via transesterification for biodiesel production.
    • Sean Nash
       
      This is key.... can we convert algal lipids into FAMEs in the lab at school with the help of Harkleroad & Tabor? Find out what all chemical processes are involved. My initial gut feeling i that it isn't an terribly prohibitive process considering how simple biodiesel was to produce in the school lab previously.
  • Furthermore, the residual de-oiled microalgal biomass can be used for animal feed.
    • Sean Nash
       
      Also, a very cool side element to consider. This might help you decide upon an algal species considering the concentration of toxins in various species, etc.
  • The resistance of cell wall to enzyme hydrolysis is one of the prime bottleneck in the Anaerobic digestion (AD) process. The overall economic feasibility of the process depends on the factors affecting AD, microalgal strain, biomass pretreatment, and culture methods (Jankowska et al., 2017). Lately, to make the system economically viable and environmentally sustainable, a closed-loop production scheme is being adopted wherein AD effluents are recycled and used as an input in the first step of AD. Jankowska et al. (2017) have presented a detailed review microalgae’s cultivation, harvesting and pretreatment for AD for biogas production.
    • Sean Nash
       
      This is a fascinating element, and one I know less about. This might be significantly more sophisticated, but that in no way should scare you. Perhaps it isn't that difficult and it would be super fun and challenging to engineer a way to do (or improve) this. (?) However, my initial gut feeling is that working with biogas production would be more difficult than liquid forms.
  • Bioethanol The carbohydrate part (mainly glucose, starch, cellulose, and hemicellulose) of the microalgal dry biomass can be used for transforming into bioethanol via fermentation. Although, microalgae accumulate relatively low quantities of sugars, the absence of lignin from microalgal structure makes them advantageous over other feedstock such as corn, sugarcane, and lignocellulosic biomass (Odjadjare et al., 2015; Jambo et al., 2016). Isochrysis galbana, Porphyridium cruentum, Spirogyra sp., Nannochloropsis oculate, Chlorella sp., are mainly exploited microalgae for the production of carbohydrates
    • Sean Nash
       
      OK, now I'm starting to see where they're going with this specific paper.... they are asserting that you'd have to find a way to separate out all of the components of the produced algal mass to gain value for each component to make it economically feasible. Do you perhaps end up finding that one particular species has both a high lipid profile (for biodiesel) as well as a reasonable carbohydrate profile (for bioethanol)?
    • Sean Nash
       
      I know less about this... is more of a fermentation process and might be a bit more dangerous that biodiesel production. Not sure, just a gut feeling when keeping in mind the safety forms. Something to bookmark.
  • Despite having notable significance, limited number of studies have reported laboratory stage work on the fermentation of microalgae biomass to butanol (Cheng et al., 2015; Gao et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2016).
    • Sean Nash
       
      A huge flag that this is an area ripe for innovation. I don't know much about the feasibility of this.... but it's interesting for sure.
  • Value-Added Products In the context of biorefinery approach, intracellular compounds and metabolites have gained immense importance owing to their high monetary value. Microalgal pigments: chlorophyll a and b, lutein, astaxanthin, β-carotene, phycobilins, C- phycocyanin have found wide application in dyes, cosmetics, food and feed additives, nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals, as natural colors, bioactive components, anti-oxidants, nutritive and neuro-protective agents (Koller et al., 2014; Begum et al., 2016). Microalgae are also exploited as rich source of amino acids (leucine, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, arginine, aspartate, alanine, glycine, lysine, and valine), Carbohydrates (β1–3- glucan, amylose, starch, cellulose, and alginates), Vitamins and minerals (vitamin B1, B2, B6, B12, C, and E; biotin, folic acid, magnesium, calcium, phosphate, iodine) that are widely used in Food additives, health supplements and medicine. Microalgae, such as Nannochloropsis, Tetraselmis, and Isochrysis are used for extraction of long chain fatty acids popularly known as the omega fatty acids such as DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) and EPA (Eicosapentaenoic Acid), have lately gained prime attention as essential for human brain development and health. Other than these, microalgae are also used for production of Extracellular Polymeric Substances (EPSs) which have many industrial applications and Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs). PHAs can be used for manufacturing bioplastics that are very sought after because of their biodegradability (Markou and Nerantzis, 2013; Koller et al., 2014).
    • Sean Nash
       
      This area is more novel.... and thus, I know the least about the feasibility of this, or our ability to measure the production of such compounds. I know the capability exists in the KC area, but you'd have to establish a relationship with someone who could help with this instrumental analysis.
  • Although many have reported successful utilization of microalgal biomass for the production of bioproducts within a biorefinery framework, the economic feasibility is unrealized and the microalgae biorefinery is way much expensive (’t Lam et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2017). To attain feasibility and sustainability, both upstream processing (USP) and downstream processing (DSP) need to be efficiently simplified and integrated. The efficiency of the USP is determined by microalgal strain selection, nutrient supply (CO2, N, and P) and culture conditions (temperature, light intensity) (Vanthoor-Koopmans et al., 2013). Whereas, the constraints at the DSP level are mainly characterized by harvesting, cell disruption, and extraction methods. DSP, specifically harvesting accounts for 20–40% of the total production costs and for a multi-product biorefinery, the cost increases to 50–60% (’t Lam et al., 2017).
    • Sean Nash
       
      Managing what is done to the algae PRE growth and POST growth. So many variables here. This is a TON of figure out, but with more variables comes more opportunity if you're willing to learn a broad new area of science (to you).
  • Bioprospecting suitable microalgae is a crucial but time intensive step
  • high throughput screening techniques like 96-well microplate swivel system (M96SS) have made processing upto 768 microalgal samples at the same time, possible
    • Sean Nash
       
      This suggests to me that rather than go down this path of full discovery... can we learn from the extensive work that has already been done here? In other words, your innovation would be less about discovering the right species to use... and more about innovating around the process. (?)
  • mixed diverse community of microalgae, dominated by Desmodesmus spp., could be adapted over a time of many months to survive in 100% flue gas from an unfiltered coal-fired power plant containing 11% CO2
  • Besides stress manipulation and acclimatization, desirable traits of the microalgal strains can be effectively improved by genetic and metabolic engineering/synthetic biology. Lately, genome editing tools such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats – CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR-Cas9) and Transcription Activator-Like (TAL) Effector Nucleases (TALEN) are being used in microalgal gene alterations. Moreover, gene-interfering tools, such as CRISPR-dCas9, micro RNA (miRNA), and silence RNA (siRNA) are being explored to alter the gene expression unlike gene modification.
    • Sean Nash
       
      The least "immediately feasible" area of this paper.....
  • Large scale microalgal cultivation and nutrient supply pose huge economic burden. In this context emphasis is being laid on biofilm based attached cultivation rather than aqua-suspend methods that have massive water requirement, low biomass productivity, energy intensive and cannot be easily scaled up
    • Sean Nash
       
      So... the scale is the problem. Methods of growing suspended in water are all I have been thinking of.... even engineering some crazy method of networks of fine, clear tubes full of algae, etc... here they're saying this is a massive challenge and requires a big industrial output to make it economically feasible. The good and the bad? The bad is that you could do a ton fo work that in the end isn't economically feasible for real world use. The good is that optimizing some stage or element of the process could potentially change this calculaton.
  • Centrifugation is the most efficient (>95% efficiency) method for harvesting microalgae
    • Sean Nash
       
      We have a centrifuge. (about a $4000 one, in fact) but it is useful only for small amounts. That doesn't solve the "how do we centrifuge large amounts of algae/water mix to harvest it," but it does allow a scaled-down version for testing small amounts that could be mathematically scaled up.
  • Flocculation is a low-cost alternative. Cationic chemical flocculants and polymeric flocculants are generally used (Brennan and Owende, 2010), but can negatively affect the toxicity of the biomass and output water (Ryan, 2009). Zhou et al. (2012) reported a novel fungi assisted bioflocculation technique, in which a filamentous fungal spores were added to the algal culture under optimized conditions and the pellets were formed after 2 days that can be harvested by simple filtration. Attached culture can also make harvesting simple (Wang et al., 2017).
    • Sean Nash
       
      This whole topic you have stumbled upon (bioengineering of algae as ultimately a way to sequester carbon in an economically-feasible way) is massive in terms of complexity of the entire system. But, subsystems are less complex and more ripe for digging into. The key thing is that this has to be interesting enough to you.... that you are willing to understand ALL of the moving parts so that you would know how your component of the puzzle fits into the broader scope of the work. It is super interesting to me and I do think there are a million variables to choose form here.... once you decide IF this is worth pouring your heart into... it is time to read read read!
  • Microalgae based carbon capture technologies are certainly promising but their successful implementation is still to be realized.
  • But, the prospects of successful commercial deployment lie in unsophisticated innovations in DSP, particularly harvesting, cell disruption and extraction, which can actually cut down the costs at a biorefinery level, along with process integration.
    • Sean Nash
       
      THIS is the sort of thing that should be encouraging. When they say that success lies in "unsophisticated innovations," that should read like: this takes tons of hard work and perseverance, but technically it isn't all that fancy.... to you. This is a good thing.
  • on can
  • . Recent technoeconomic analyses and life-cycle assessments of microalgae-based production systems have suggested that the only possible way for scaling up the production is to completely use the biomass in an integrated biorefinery set-up wherein every valuable component is extracted, processed and valorized.
  • The temperature of the planet has risen by 0.85°C from 1880 to 2012 and it has been forecasted that by the end of this century
  • CCS operate over 3 major steps: CO2 capture, CO2 transportation and CO2 storage.
  • CO2 capture is done from large point sources such as power plants and cement manufacturing plants. The separation and capture of CO2 from other exhaust components is usually done via following methods: (i) chemical absorption; (ii) physical adsorption; (iii) membrane separation; and (iv) cryogenic distillation (Figueroa et al., 2008; Pires et al., 2011, 2012).
  • carbon capture and storage (CCS)
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    I haven't fully finished reading it, but it does seem to be interesting. It may be a rabbit hole I wanna go down.
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    Annotating thoughts for Katherine...
Sean Nash

Tools to illustrate your scientific works! (open source web-based) | by Dr. Veronica Es... - 0 views

  • 1.-ChemixChemisc is an educational app that lets you easily draw lab diagram setups and explain your experiments. It has a large library of highly customisable apparatus and various features to help you draw diagrams with ease [3].
  • 2.-SmartSince its launch in 2001, Servier Medical Art is a trusted and internationally recognized resource used in respected journals, textbooks, online resources, and more. [ In this website you will find 3000 Free medical images to illustrate your publications and Powerpoint presentations!
  • 3.-BioiconsBioicons is a free library of open source icons for scientific illustrations using vector graphics software
    • Sean Nash
       
      This one I already knew of and used. Several students made use of this resource last year.
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  • 4.-Health IconsHealth Icons is a volunteer effort to create a ‘global good’ for health projects all over the world. These icons are available in the public domain for use in any type of project.
  • 5.-SciDrawSciDraw is a free repository of high quality drawings of animals, scientific setups, and anything that might be useful for scientific presentations and posters [9].
  • 5.-Draw.ioDraw.io is a free, online diagramming tool that allows you to create flowcharts, diagrams, mind maps, organisation charts, and much more. A web-based application, Draw.io is fully integrated with Google Drive. This means that you can automatically save the results of your work in your Google Workspace or Gmail account [10].
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    Save these for later this year. You will likely use resources like this to aid in your diagrams/models for your display.
Sean Nash

A new breakthrough in understanding regeneration in a marine worm | ScienceDaily - 0 views

  • The sea worm Platynereis dumerilii is only a few centimetres long but has a remarkable ability: in just a few days, it can regenerate entire parts of its body after an injury or amputation.
    • Sean Nash
       
      Trevor Davids used the California blackworm, Lumbriculus variegatus, to examine the effects of titanium dioxide nanoparticles on regeneration rate. Lumbroculus is a freshwater worm and easy to care for.
  • a research team led by a CNRS scientist1 has observed that gut cells play a role in the regeneration of the intestine as well as other tissues such as muscle and epidermis
  • Even more surprising, the team found that this ability of gut cells to regenerate other tissue varies according to their location: the closer they are to the posterior end of the worm, the greater the variety of cell types they can rebuild
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  • This was tracked using different markers in particular by fluorescent beads ingested by the worms.
    • Sean Nash
       
      This is similar to what Grant Reed was trying to do with painted lady butterflies. He wanted to see the effects of ingesting plastic nanoparticles on their development and regeneration. The smart selection of fluorescent nanoparticles (which we purchased and still have) would allow the tracking of the particles using specialized microscopy.
  • Annelids, or 'segmented worms', which have only been studied in the last 20 years, are an ideal model for the study of regeneration, a process that is widespread in animals but still mysterious for scientists.
  • The research team will continue this work to determine whether cell types, other than gut cells, can play a role in regenerating a variety of cell types.
  • Journal Reference: Loïc Bideau, Zoé Velasquillo-Ramirez, Loeiza Baduel, Marianne Basso, Pascale Gilardi-Hebenstreit, Vanessa Ribes, Michel Vervoort, Eve Gazave. Variations in cell plasticity and proliferation underlie distinct modes of regeneration along the antero-posterior axis in the annelid Platynereis. Development, 2024; 151 (20) DOI: 10.1242/dev.202452
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    There are elements of this study that connect to what Trevor Davids & Grant Reed were doing last year... but with a different model organism.
Kylie John

A high-fat diet may fuel anxiety | ScienceDaily - 0 views

  • The study found that in animals, a high-fat diet disrupts resident gut bacteria, alters behavior and, through a complex pathway connecting the gut to the brain, influences brain chemicals in ways that fuel anxiety.
  • "To think that just a high-fat diet could alter expression of these genes in the brain is extraordinary," said Lowry. "The high-fat group essentially had the molecular signature of a high anxiety state in their brain."
Kylie John

Frontiers | Evaluating undesired scratching in domestic cats: a multifactorial approach... - 0 views

  • cratching serves many purposes such as maintaining claw health, provision of safety by marking and social communication
  • This holistic approach ensures a comprehensive understanding and effective management of scratching-related issues in domestic cats.
Sean Nash

Mysterious Underwater Acoustic World of British Ponds Revealed in New Study | Current S... - 1 views

  • The previously hidden and diverse underwater acoustic world in British ponds has been revealed by a team of researchers at the University of Bristol.
    • Sean Nash
       
      So... my immediate thought is: How cool would it be to do this here? One thing we DO have: PONDS. See if this *sounds* interesting. Get it? ;)
  • Acoustic monitoring has been shown to effectively survey birds and monkeys in rainforests, and marine mammals in the oceans. However, freshwater environments have remained largely unexplored despite their diverse soundscapes.
    • Sean Nash
       
      BOOM. Again, "relatively unexplored" is super exciting verbiage to me. Acoustics. Hydrophones. Is this feasible? Is the equipment affordable? If not, could we borrow one? Dig into it. What are the possibilities?
  • analysis of the audio files revealed clear daily acoustic activity cycles in each pond
    • Sean Nash
       
      Aside from the exploratory surveys you would do just to see "what's out there" and assess what we CAN learn from listening to a pond, you could make it experimental by comparing ponds you've assessed the health of by other means. In other words, do acoustic comparisons between two ponds correlate with what you find by doing a macroinvertebrate sampling? I really LIKE the possibilities in this one!
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  • Typically, a nocturnal chorus is made by aquatic insects that compete to attract mates by producing strange scratching sounds as they rub their genitals against their abdomens. During the daytime, however, aquatic plants dominate the underwater orchestra with rhythmic whining and ticking sounds produced as tiny oxygen bubbles are released by plants respiring in the hot sun.
  • Using this acoustic method, the presence of species, and a determination of ecological health, can be inferred simply by listening to the natural world without disturbing the environment or harming the plants and animals within it.
    • Sean Nash
       
      Here is the obvious value proposition if you could work this out.
  • Publication: Jack A. Greenhalgh, et al., Diel variation in insect-dominated temperate pond soundscapes and guidelines for survey design, Freshwater Biology (2023). DOI: 10.1111/fwb.14092.
    • Sean Nash
       
      BEST THING YET: Here is the FULL TEXT of the actual research paper!
    • Sean Nash
       
      Here is the FULL TEXT of the actual research paper!
emmarrogers

Effects of the herbicide metolachlor on the perception of chemical stimuli by Orconecte... - 0 views

  • It is not clear if this interference comes from masking the odor, where the animal cannot detect the signal over the background noise, or if there is a physiological effect on the olfactory receptor cells or neuromusculature that influences the animal’s behavior
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