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Crassus won the Third Servile War, but his rival Pompey would steal his victory with a letter to the Senate claiming credit for ending the war.

Marcus Licinius Crassus is a major character in the 1956 Alfred Duggan novel, Winter Quarters. The novel follows two fictional Gallic nobles who join Julius Caesar's cavalry then find their way into the service of Marcus' son, Publius Licinius Crassus, in Gaul. The characters eventually become clients of Publius Crassus and by extension, his father Marcus. The second half of the novel is related by its Gallic narrator from within the ranks of Crassus' doomed army en route to do battle with Parthia. The book depicts an over-confident and militarily incompetent Crassus up to the moment of his death.

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Upon his arrival in the Parthian camp he was seized and killed by being forced to drink a cup of melted gold as a symbol of his thirst for riches.

Marcus Licinius Crassus

Crassus and Spartacus

Crassus and Spartacus

Main articles: Latin literature, Roman art, Roman music, and Roman architecture Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal[92] and Persius. The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture[93] during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories. Detail of a mosaic found in Pompeii. The figure on the left is playing the double aulos, double-reed pipes; the figure in the middle, cymbalum, small, bronze cymbals; and on the right, the tympanum, a tambourine-like drum. Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from Greek μουσική (mousike), "(art) of the Muses".[94] Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneuvers. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier. Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently.[95] The architectural

Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal[92] and Persius. The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity.

style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained.

Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors

In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.

In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture[93] during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories.

The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Board games played in Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[96] There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,

The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Board games played in Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[96] There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,

Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC. However, the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC, when Romans came in contact with Greek culture, and adopted many of the Greek’s religious beliefs. Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices. In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The two most famous deities were Jupiter (the king God) and Mars (the god of war). With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism

Board games played in Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.[96] There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,

Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods.

In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods.

During this period, an army formation of around 5,000 men (of both heavy and light infantry) was known as a legion. The manipular army was based upon social class, age and military experience.[104] Maniples were units of 120 men each drawn from a single infantry class. The maniples were typically deployed into three discreet lines based on the three heavy infantry types. Each first line maniple were leather-armoured infantry soldiers who wore a brass breastplate and a brass helmet adorned with 3 feathers approximately 30 cm (12 in) in height and carried an iron-clad wooden shield. They were armed with a sword and two throwing spears. The second

Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome, and its famed seven hills. The city also had several theaters.[73] gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels

In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods.

Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office.

The Roman Republic was governed by a largely unwritten complex constitution

Each consul would check his colleague, and their limited term in office would open them up to prosecution if they abused the powers of their office

According to the more or less legendary traditional accounts, Rome's republican era began after the overthrow of the last Roman King

The Romans' Latin language

Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers[74] and wine and oil were imported from abroad.

In times of military emergency, a dictator

Home was often the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army.

Home was often the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction[90] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing.

Home was often the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction[90] from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving, and sewing.

The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians, or common people, like shepherds and slaves, was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool

Even footwear indicated a person’s social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots.

In a sense, each household was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods.

Throughout the territory under Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, to the residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived.

The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into apartment blocks.

Rome also saw its territory expand dramatically during this period, from central Italy to the entire Mediterranean world. During the first two centuries, Rome's influence expanded to cover the whole of Italy. During the next century, Rome's military muscle and developing economy dominated North Africa, Spain, Greece, and what is now southern France. During the last two centuries of the Roman Republic, Rome overcame resistance across the rest of modern France, as well as much of Anatolia and Syria.

The requirements for becoming a senator included having at least 100,000 denarii worth of land, being born of the patrician (noble aristocrats) class, and having held public office at least once before. The rest of the senatus would vote on your acceptance.

Life in the Roman Republic revolved around the city of Rome , and its famed seven hills . The city also had several theaters . [73] gymnasiums , and many taverns , baths and brothels . Throughout the territory under Rome's

Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before.

Wine was considered a staple drink,[86] consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap.

Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism,

tribes

In the year 494 BC, the city was at war with two neighboring tribes

The centuries and the tribes would each gather into their own assemblies

The most important constitutional change probably concerned the chief executive.

The heavy infantry of the maniples were supported by a number of light infantry and cavalry troops, typically 300 horsemen per manipular legion.[106] The cavalry was drawn primarily from the richest class of equestrians.

The plebeians called these new officials "plebeian tribunes".

In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed

Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance. Thus, only a revolution could overthrow this new aristocracy.

Consuls had supreme power in both civil and military matters.

In 83 BC, he returned to Rome, overcame all resistance, and recaptured the city. Sulla and his supporters then slaughtered most of Marius' supporters. Sulla, having observed the violent results of radical popular reforms, was naturally conservative. As such, he sought to strengthen the aristocracy, and by extension the senate.[56] Sulla made himself dictator, passed a series of constitutional reforms, resigned the dictatorship, and served one last term as consul. He died in 78 BC.

Early in its history, the republic was controlled by an aristocracy of individuals who could trace their ancestry back to the early history of the kingdom. Over time, the laws that allowed these individuals to dominate the government were repealed, and the result was the emergence of a new aristocracy which depended on the structure of society, rather than the law, to maintain its dominance. Thus, only a revolution could overthrow this new aristocracy.

. Historians have variously proposed the appointment of Julius Caesar as perpetual dictator in 44 BC, the defeat of Mark Antony at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, and the Roman Senate's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian under the first settlement in 27 BC, as candidates for the defining pivotal event ending the Republic.

The assembly of the tribes, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul,[12] and was composed of thirty-five tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[15]

The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence, aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region.[123] Initially, Rome's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages,[124] or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond. One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities that were either under Etruscan control or else Latin towns that had cast off their Etruscan rulers.[125] Rome defeated Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC,[124][126] the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC, the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC,[127][128] the Battle of Aricia,[129] and an Etruscan city in the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC,[130][131]

During a term as praetor in Iberia (modern Spain), Pompey's contemporary Julius Caesar defeated two local tribes in battle.[187]

Pompey's death did not result in an end to the civil war as Caesar's enemies were manifold and continued to fight on. In 46 BC Caesar lost perhaps as much as a third of his army, but ultimately came back to defeat the Pompeian army of Metellus Scipio in the Battle of Thapsus, after which the Pompeians retreated yet again to Iberia. Caesar then defeated the combined Pompeian forces at the Battle of Munda.

The Roman military was split into the Roman army and the Roman navy, although these two branches were less distinct than they tend to be in modern defence forces. Within the top-level branches of army and navy, structural changes occurred both as a result of positive military reform and through organic structural evolution.

. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls)

The native language of the Romans was Latin. Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin , an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Rome's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages.[91] Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin, English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words.

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion , through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

The Roman Republic

The Roman Republic

The Roman Republic

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion , through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion , through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion , through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

Sulla

Sulla

Sulla

Mark Antony

dictator's

democracy

Sull

Sulla

consul

Marcus Brutus

Marcus Brutus.

Roman Republic

It was the People of Rome - and thus the assemblies - who had the final say regarding the election of magistrates,[8] the enactment of new laws,[9] the carrying out of capital punishment, the declaration of war and peace, and the creation (or dissolution) of alliances.[8] There were two types of legislative assemblies. The first was the comitia ("committees"),[10] which were assemblies of all citizens. The second was the concilia ("councils"), which were assemblies of specific groups of citizens.[11]

Praetors would administer civil law[26] and command provincial armies. Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a census. During the census, they could enroll citizens in the senate, or purge them from the senate.[

Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term.

The assembly of the tribes, the Comitia Tributa, was presided over by a consul,[12] and was composed of thirty-five tribes. The tribes were not ethnic or kinship groups, but rather geographical subdivisions.[15] The order that the thirty-five tribes would vote in was selected randomly by lot.[16] Once a measure received support from a majority of the tribes, the voting would end. While it did not pass many laws, the Comitia Tributa did elect quaestors, curule aediles, and military tribunes.

The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a republican form of government; a period which began with the overthrow of the Roman monarchy , c. 509 BC, and lasted over 450 years until its subversion , through a series of civil wars , into the Principate form of government and the Imperial period.

The precise even t which signaled the end of the Roman Republic and the transition into the Roman Empire is a matter of interpretation. Towards the end of the period a selection of Roman leaders came to so dominate the political arena that they exceeded the limitations of the Republic as a matter of course.

[edit] Political history

[edit] Political history

Political history

The constitutional history of the Roman Republic can be divided into five phases. The first phase began with the revolution which overthrew the monarchy in 510 BC. The final phase ended with the revolution which overthrew the Roman Republic, and thus created the Roman Empire, in 27 BC. Throughout the history of the republic, the constitutional evolution was driven by the struggle between the aristocracy and the ordinary citizens.

assemblies were as powerless as

[edit] The Conflict of the Orders (367-287 BC) After the plebeian aedileship had been created, the patricians created the curule aedileship.[35] After the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebeians were able to hold both the dictatorship and the censorship. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor was elected.[36] In 342 BC, two significant laws were passed . One of these two laws made it illegal to hold more than one office at any given point in time. The other law required an interval of ten years to pass before any magistrate could seek reelection to any office.[37]

[edit] The legion after the reforms of Gaius Marius (107 BC – 27 BC) In a process known as the Marian reforms, Roman consul Gaius Marius carried out a programme of reform of the Roman military.[112] In 107 BC, all citizens, regardless of their wealth or social class, were made eligible for entry into the Roman army. This move formalised and concluded a gradual process that had been growing for centuries, of removing property requirements for military service.[113] The distinction between the three heavy infantry classes, which had already become blurred, had collapsed into a single class of heavy legionary infantry. The heavy infantry legionaries were drawn from citizen stock, while non-citizens came to dominante the ranks of the light infantry. The army's higher-level officers and commanders were still drawn exclusively from the Roman aristocracy.[114] Unlike earlier in the Republic, legionaries were no longer fighting on a seasonal basis to protect their land.η[›] Instead, they received standard pay, and were employed by the state on a fixed-term basis. As a consequence, military duty began to appeal most to the poorest sections of society, to whom a salaried pay was attractive. A destabilising consequence of this development was that the proletariat "acquired a stronger and more elevated position"[115] within the state.

Bust of Marius, instigator of the Marian reforms

In times of military emergency, a dictator would be appointed for a term of six months.[29] Constitutional government would dissolve, and the dictator would become the absolute master of the state.[30] When the dictator's term ended, constitutional government would be restored.

Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term. During their term in office, the two censors would conduct a census.

Every five years, two censors would be elected for an eighteen month term.

After the assassination, Mark Antony formed an alliance with Caesar's adopted son

slaves, was made from coarse and dark material,

The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate

While in the city of Rome, the consuls were the head of the Roman government.

Slavery and slaves were part of the social order; there were slave markets where they could be bought and sold.

.[27] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows.

The Roman military was split into the Roman army and the Roman navy,

[27] Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, such as managing public games and shows.

their term in office

their term

their term in office

Caesar's assassination and the Second Triumvirate Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC. The motives of the conspirators were both personal and political.

Roman Republic

When resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were sometimes linked by patriarchal lineage but just as likely linked by marriage (new wives were especially likely to have male relatives join them), acquaintance or even no clearly defined relation but a simple shared membership in the tribe.

Traditional Bedouin Bedouin woman in Jerusalem , ca. 1900 The Bedouins were divided into related tribes. These tribes were organized on several levels—a widely quoted Bedouin saying is "I and my brothers against my cousins, I and my brothers and my cousins against the world." This saying signifies a hierarchy of loyalties based on closeness of kinship that runs from the nuclear family through the lineage, the tribe, and even, in principle at least, to an entire ethnic or linguistic group (which is perceived to have a kinship basis). Disputes are settled, interests are pursued, and justice and order are maintained by means of this organizational framework, according to an ethic of self-help and collective responsibility (Andersen 14). The individual family unit (known as a tent or bayt ) typically consisted of three or four adults (a married couple plus siblings or parents) and any number of children. When resources were plentiful, several tents would travel together as a goum. These groups were sometimes linked by patriarchal lineage but just as likely linked by marriage (new wives were especially likely to have male relatives join them), acquaintance or even no clearly defined relation but a simple shared membership in the tribe.

The war against Spartacus took place around this time (73–71 BC)

He played a critical role in the transformation of the Roman Republic into the Roman Empire.

Jerusalem

Jerusalem