World History Honors

le by moral example () instead of by force and violence; and so forth. Confucius thought that a ruler who had to resort to force had already failed as a ruler -- "Your job is to govern, not to kill" (Analects XII:19). This was not a principle that Chinese rulers always obeyed, but it was the ideal of benevolent () rule

. Confucius thought that government by laws and punishments could keep people in line, but government by example of virtue () and good manners () would enable them to control themselves (Analects II:3). "The way the wind blows, that's the way the grass bends" (Analects XII:19). Self-control, indeed, is the basis of all the industrious virtues that have made the Chinese people economically successful whenever they have been allowed to prosper, whether in California, Malaya, or China

without a hint of the ideals of individual liberty

does not mean complete denial of self.

begins with the character for "self" and ends with the characters for "others

teaching of Confucius is his arm's length attitude towards religion.

attitude of Confucius towards profit () is, at best, ambiguous.

"Confucianism regards as ideal the harmony between profit and justice.

Key Passages in the Analects of Confucius

“Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is at hand.”

Immediately they left their nets and followed him.

Immediately they left the boat and their father and followed him.

It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors had been the physicians of the Macedonian royal family for several generations. Having come from a long line of physicians, Aristotle received training and education that inclined his mind toward the study of natural phenomena. This education had long-lasting influences, and was probably the root cause of his less idealistic stand on philosophy as opposed to Plato.

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opposing views on several fundamental philosophical issues, specifically regarding Plato's theory of ideas. As has already been noted, Aristotle was more concerned than Plato with the actual material world, and did not believe that the only thing that mattered is the realm of ideas and perfect forms.

him to study at Plato's Academy in Athens, the heart of the intellectual world at the time. Aristotle remained at the Academy for twenty years, until Plato's death in 347 BC. Although Aristotle was Plato's most promising student

While the extent to which Aristotle's tutoring influenced Alexander's successes in conquering an empire is disputable, Alexander did try to organize much of his empire along the model of the Greek city-state.

The fundamental difference between the two philosophers is that Plato thought only pure mathematical reasoning was necessary, and therefore focused on metaphysics and mathemtics. Aristotle, on the other hand, thought that in addition to this "first philosophy," it is also necessary to undertake detailed empirical investigations of nature, and thus to study what he called "second philosophy," which includes such subjects as physics, mechanics and biology.

Aristotle agreed with Plato that the cosmos is rationally designed and that philosophy can come to know absolute truths by studying universal forms. Their ideas diverged, however, in that Aristotle thought that the one finds the universal in particular things, while Plato believed the universal exists apart from particular things, and that material things are only a shadow of true reality, which exists in the realm of ideas and forms.

Aristotle's philosophy therefore involved both inductive and deductive reasoning, observing the workings of the world around him and then reasoning from the particular to a knowledge of essences and universal laws.

In a sense, Aristotle was the first major proponent of the modern scientific method.

Overall, Aristotle wrote three types of works: dialogues or other works of a popular character, collections of scientific data and observations, and systematic treatises. His philosophy can be divided into four main areas: 1) Logic; 2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics and Mathematics; 3) Practical Philosophy, such as Ethics and Politics; and 4) Poetical Philosophy, covering the study of poetry and the fine arts.

During the next twelve years, Plato traveled widely around the Mediterranean, allegedly visiting Italy, Sicily, and Egypt. In these foreign lands, he sought out philosophers, priests, and prophets, with whom he reportedly studied religion, geometry, and astronomy.

In 387 BC, at the age of forty, Plato returned to Athens and founded the Academy.

the Academy taught a comprehensive curriculum of astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy

Plato witnessed the trial and execution of Socrates at the hands of the restored Athenian democracy. Socrates was charged with corrupting the youth and religious apostasy, hated by many for critiquing the new democratic government and for making its leading citizens sometimes look foolish. The trial was later memorialized in Plato's Apology; Socrates’ reasons for not taking up a chance to escape from prison rather than face punishment are recorded in Plato's Crito.

Plato had two brothers, Adeimantus and Glaucon, as well as a younger sister, Potone. Perictione later had a child with Pyrilampes named Antiphon.

However, Plato later began to develop his own philosophy and the Socrates of the later dialogues does more teaching than he does questioning. The fundamental aspect of Plato's thought is the theory of "ideas" or "forms."

human beings up based on their innate intelligence, strength, and courage. Those who are not overly bright, or strong, or brave, are suited to various productive professions: farming, smithing, building, etc. Those who are somewhat bright, strong, and especially courageous are suited to defensive and policing professions. Those who are extraordinarily intelligent, virtuous, and brave, are suited to run the state itself; that is, Plato's ideal state is an aristocracy, a Greek word which means "rule by the best." The lower end of human society, which, as far as Plato is concerned, consists of an overwhelming majority of people in a state, he calls the "producers

The Allegory of the Cave and the Divided Line:

The intelligible world contains the eternal "Forms" (