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the cellular organization of schools keeps teachers physically apart from other professionals in the school. This isolation then impacts teacher attitudes and limits the relationships between teachers, students, administrators, and the community -- relationships that are essential factors in the change process.

Structures in the school that contribute to teacher isolation and the feeling that the individual cannot make a difference are indeed barriers to school improvement efforts.

Secondary students, in particular, must cope with a structure with which no worker in the real world would be saddled (Shanker, 1989). Shanker (1989) describes some of these conditions: They're put into a room to work with 30 or more of their peers, with whom they cannot communicate. The teacher gives them their tasks, and, when the bell rings 40 or so minutes later, they have to gather up their belongings and head to another "work station" for a whole new set of tasks with a new "supervisor" who has a different personality and, very likely, a different method of operation. This routine is repeated six or seven times a day�All youngsters are expected to have sufficient motivation and self-discipline to get down to serious work on day one in anticipation of a "reward" far down the road -- something most adults need all their fortitude to accomplish. (p. 3)

Spady (1988) believes that the organization of schools around the calendar, the clock and the schedule, exerts a pervasive influence on the thinking of those who work and study in them. This focus on time, along with the legal mandate to keep students in the custody of the school for fixed periods of time, may result in teachers adopting the unproductive syndromes of "putting in time" and "covering material" (Spady, 1988).

In a 1987 study, Pittman and Haughwout estimate that the

dropout rate at a school increases one percent for every 400-student increase in the high school population.

benefits to the curriculum gained by size of enrollment peaked at 400 students

In large schools a breakdown occurs in communication, feedback about performance, and staff involvement in decision making (Hallinger, Bickman, & Davis, 1990).

According to Fullan (1991), the working conditions of teachers in the vast majority of schools are not conducive to sustained teacher innovation

To improve teacher performance, the work environment must enhance teachers' sense of professionalism and decrease their career dissatisfaction.

Sarason (1982) reports that the untested assumption that few others think the same way keeps school staff from expressing ideas for improving the school.

This vast array of regulations runs counter to the findings of Chubb and Moe (1990), who found that schools with a greater percentage of academically achieving students have "substantial school autonomy from direct external control" (p. 183)

Basic education policy should be shaped at state and district levels, but the day-to-day decision-making should shift to the local school, according to a report of the Carnegie Foundation (1988). This report concludes that what is needed is school-based authority with accountability at the school level.

leadership in change efforts is well documented at the school level.

This method of examining change finds its roots in the cultural approach to school improvement, which suggests that "teachers and students are strongly influenced by the culture of the school, the mores, routines, and conventions about how things are done in their schools" (Deal & Peterson, 1990, p. 6).

at risk of failing to achieve their academic potential, dropping out of school, and/or having limits placed on their ability to function as productive adults in society.

the ecology, includes the inorganic elements of the school

The resources available, policies and rules, and size of the school are examples of this dimension of school context.

Culture is an expression that tries to capture the informal side of social organizations

Schein (1985) goes on to define culture as "the deeper level of basic assumptions and beliefs that are shared by members of an organization, that operate unconsciously, and that define in a basic `taken-for-granted' fashion an organization's view of itself and its environment" (p. 6).

attitudes and beliefs

cultural norms of the school, c

relationships of persons inside the school

Minorities don't care about education. (p. 39)

Welch (1989) reports that teachers assess advantages and disadvantages of collaborative consultation primarily in terms of how implementation will impact them personally, rather than how it might impact student growth

For [many students] the main benefit of the school is the opportunity it provides to interact with close friends on a daily basis" (p. 181

Students will participate, according to Fullan, if they understand, have the necessary skills, and are motivated to try what is expected.

With teachers unable to explain why they were adopting this innovation, concern increased and parents put an end to the innovation.

in situations where the school board and the district are actively working together, substantial improvements can be achieved,

Cynicism and apathy may reflect negative experiences and produce teachers who are unwilling to proceed regardless of the content or quality of the program (Corbett, Dawson, & Firestone, 1984; Fullan, 1991).

Cuban (1988) states that most reforms fail because of flawed implementation.

Lasting fundamental change (e.g. changes in teaching practices or the decision making structure) requires understanding and, often, altering the school's culture; cultural change is a slow process.

culture becomes the cohesion that bonds the school together

culture can also be oppressive and discriminatory

attitudes and beliefs of those in the school create mental models

system paranoia exists

Those new to the organization must learn the culture or suffer consequences, such as the feeling of alienation.

high expectations for itself

successful programs do not suppress criticism

a school can make significant gains, in spite of faculty weaknesses, through sound staff development. Schools, however, commonly fail to have a norm regarding the need for in-service work during implementation (Fullan, 1991)

sharing a common vision increases the likelihood that school improvement efforts will succeed (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990; Deal, 1985; Carlson, 1987; Miles & Louis, 1990; Norris & Reigeluth, 1991; Schlechty & Cole, 1991).

A cultural norm supporting the involvement of teachers in decisions or plans that will affect them heightens the possibility that changes will be appropriate in a particular setting.

Not only teachers, but students as well need to internalize the norms of the school improvement culture.

These norms encourage criticism in order to highlight areas that need improvement.

Students are rarely informed regarding plans in spite of the fact that the plans cannot be carried out successfully when students are not committed to cooperate with the plan, and do not know what to do or how to do it. (Fullan, 1991)

Negative side effects that may occur from accommodation are students' expectations that accommodations will always be made, a lack of active student engagement with the content of instruction and increased student boredom and apathy (Miller, Leinhardt, & Zigmond, 1988).

Parents need to be involved as co-teachers in their children's education.

"leadership requires a vision. Without a vision to challenge followers with, there's no possibility of a principal being a leader"

The relationship between the teachers' and administrators' vision is important.

Administrators' vision tends to encompass the whole system or as described by Manasse (1986) their vision is an organizational vision. Teachers' vision appear to focus primarily on the individual or personal actions for school change

vision is "based on personal or personalized professional values"

"visionary leadership demands a clear sense of personal and organizational values"

The first value Aplin identified was that the instructional programs were "the highest priority of the system and decisions were assessed as to whether they enhanced or threatened it"

The second value this superintendent had was "equity in person relationships and instructional decisions

"Practices of delegation, teaming, flexibility of process and incremental planning with extensive communication" (p. 11) was the third valu

"The fourth value held was the need to retain a high level of local control

.The fifth value disclosed was his belief that the quality of decision is improved if there has been free and honest disclosure among interested parties"

"the specific value that each superintendent seemed to exemplify was simply 'the children come first'"

This loyalty includes a keen understanding of the community's values as well as consistent participation in community activities.

while there was little difference between the activities of effective and ineffective principals, the meanings they attributed to their activities were significantly different.

They found that personal background factors, such as type of education, and organizational factors, such as school size, were more important than values.

"Principals in the high-SES effective schools expected an academic emphasis and task orientations in classrooms but encouraged teachers to implement a broad curriculum. Their counterparts in the low-SES effective schools implemented a more narrowly defined curriculum and allocated more time for basic skill instruction"

"The primary rewards for most teachers come from students' academic accomplishments -- from feeling certain about their own capacity to affect student development"

Hallinger and Murphy (1986) reported that even when the low wealth schools were achieving, teachers' expectations were lower than those for students at wealthier schools; they believed they had minimal parental support and therefore assigned less homework and stressed the basic curriculum.

Differences in curricular and instructional practices suggest that the manner in which staff implement curriculum and instruction is filtered through their perceptions, beliefs and expectations concerning student ability and community background

Effective superintendents believe that students come first; effective principals believe in meeting the instructional needs of the students. Teachers value working with students and believe that they have an impact on their achievement. They have the shared belief that students' learning is of primary importance. The literature revealed that these individuals' also shared a common value. They valued the human resources -- the contributions, talents, and efforts -- of others in their organization.

principals more accountable