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snishi97

The next generation of biomaterial development - 0 views

  • As defined by Park & Lakes (2007), a biomaterial is a material that replaces either a tissue within the body or a function of the body.
  • In the first generation of biomaterial development, individuals used materials in their local environments for replacing tissues that were lost to damage or disease.
  • The goal during the first generation of biomaterial development was the creation of materials that exhibited inert behaviour when placed in the body. Surgeons sought materials that provided (i) appropriate mechanical properties for the intended use, (ii) corrosion resistance, and (iii) an absence of injurious effects such as carcinogenicity, toxicity, allergy and inflammation.
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  • In the second half of the twentieth century, materials scientists began to partner with physicians in order to develop novel biomaterials that were specifically designed for use within the human body. During this time, biomaterials were created that promoted specific responses by the surrounding tissues.
  • At the present time, which is referred to as the third generation of biomaterial development, biomaterials are being created that promote or inhibit specific cell activities.
  • Current biomaterial research efforts involve the development of materials that promote an ‘appropriate host response for a given application’
mollyrf2023

How antibiotics kill bacteria: from targets to networks - 0 views

  • Most current bactericidal antimicrobials, which are the focus of this review, inhibit DNA synthesis, RNA synthesis, cell wall synthesis, or protein synthesis
  • Quinolones are derivatives of nalidixic acid, which was discovered as a byproduct of chloroquine (quinine) synthesis
  • Nalidixic acid and other first generation quinolones (i.e., oxolinic acid) are rarely used today owing to their toxicity17. Second (i.e., ciprofloxacin), third (i.e., levofloxacin) and fourth (i.e., gemifloxacin) generation quinolone antibiotics (Table 1) can be classified based on their chemical structure along with qualitative differences in how these drugs kill bacteria
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  • quinolone class of antimicrobials interferes with the maintenance of chromosomal topology by targeting DNA gyrase (topoisomerase II) and topoisomerase IV (topoIV), trapping these enzymes at the DNA cleavage stage and preventing strand rejoining
  • DNA strand breakage occurs after the drug has bound the enzyme
  • quinolone treatment is to generate double-stranded DNA breaks that are trapped by covalently (yet reversibly) linked topoisomerases whose functions are compromised
  • eads to bacteriostasis and eventually cell deat
  • DNA replication machinery becomes arrested at blocked replication forks, leading to inhibition of DNA synthesis, which immediately leads to bacteriostasis and eventually cell death
  • inhibition by quinolones induces the DNA stress response (SOS response), in which RecA is activated by DNA damage and promotes auto-cleavage of the LexA repressor protein, inducing expression of SOS-response genes including DNA repair enzymes
  • Preventing induction of the SOS response has also been shown to reduce the formation of drug-resistant mutants by blocking the induction of error-prone DNA polymerases34, homologous recombination20, and horizontal transfer of drug-resistance elements
  • ifamycin drugs inhibit DNA-dependent transcription by stable binding, with high affinity, to the subunit (encoded by the rpoB gene) of a DNA-bound and actively-transcribing RNA polymerase enzyme
  • a recently discovered class of RNA polymerase inhibitors (based on the compound CBR703) may inhibit elongation by allosteric modification of the enzyme
  • requirement of rifamycins is that RNA synthesis has not progressed beyond the addition of two ribonucleotides
  • bacterial cell is encased by layers of peptidoglycan (PG, or murein), a covalently cross-linked polymer matrix composed of peptide-linked β-(1–4)-N-acetyl hexosamine
  • β-lactams and glycopeptides are among the classes of antibiotics that interfere with specific steps in homeostatic cell wall biosynthesis
  • Successful treatment with a cell wall synthesis inhibitor can result in changes to cell shape and size, induce cellular stress responses, and culminate in cell lysis
  • penicillins, carbapenems and cephalosporins
  • inhibiting the peptide bond formation reaction catalyzed by transpeptidases, which are also known as penicillin-binding proteins
  • the β-lactam drug molecule (containing a cyclic amide ring) is an analog of the terminal D-alanyl-D-alanine dipeptide of PG, and acts a substrate for the enzyme during the acylation phase of cross-link formation –- which disables the enzyme due to its inability to hydrolyze the bond created with the now ring-opened drug
  • reduce cellular mechanical strength
  • chemically-modified glycopeptides have been shown to directly interact with the transglycosylase enzyme
  • lipopeptides (e.g., daptomycin) which affect structural integrity via their ability to insert into the cell membrane and induce depolarization
  • Filamentation can occur, following activation of the DNA damage responsive SOS network of genes
  • mRNA translation occurs over three sequential phases (initiation, elongation and termination) involving the ribosome
  • The ribosome organelle is composed of two ribonucleoprotein subunits, the 50S and 30S
  • Drugs that inhibit protein synthesis are among the broadest classes of antibiotics and can be divided into two subclasses: the 50S inhibitors and 30S inhibitors
  • 0S ribosome inhibitors work by physically blocking either initiation of protein translation
  • or translocation of peptidyl-tRNAs, which serves to inhibit the peptidyltransferase reaction that elongates the nacent peptide chain
  • 30S ribosome inhibitors
  • work by blocking the access of aminoacyl-tRNAs to the ribosome
  • LysisRupture of the cell envelope leading to the expulsion of intracellular contents into the surrounding
  • interferes with the stability of peptidyl-tRNA binding to the ribosome by inhibiting elongation factor-catalyzed translocation
  • promoting tRNA mismatching which can result in protein mistranslation
asfldkj

NASA Researchers Studying Advanced Nuclear Rocket Technologies | NASA - 0 views

shared by asfldkj on 16 Jun 14 - No Cached
  • A nuclear rocket engine uses a nuclear reactor to heat hydrogen to very high temperatures, which expands through a nozzle to generate thrust.
  • The team recently used Marshall's Nuclear Thermal Rocket Element Environmental Simulator, or NTREES, to perform realistic, non-nuclear testing of various materials for nuclear thermal rocket fuel elements. In an actual reactor, the fuel elements would contain uranium, but no radioactive materials are used during the NTREES tests. Among the fuel options are a graphite composite and a "cermet" composite - a blend of ceramics and metals. Both materials were investigated in previous NASA and U.S. Department of Energy research efforts.
  • A first-generation nuclear cryogenic propulsion system could propel human explorers to Mars more efficiently than conventional spacecraft, reducing crews' exposure to harmful space radiation and other effects of long-term space missions. It could also transport heavy cargo and science payloads. Further development and use of a first-generation nuclear system could also provide the foundation for developing extremely advanced propulsion technologies and systems in the future - ones that could take human crews even farther into the solar system.
emiliamk

What is specific impulse? - 0 views

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    Good information of propulsion in general
asfldkj

Nuclear Pulse Propulsion: Gateway to the Stars | ANS Nuclear Cafe - 0 views

  • roject Orion was the first serious attempt to design a nuclear pulse rocket. The design effort was carried out at General Atomics in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The idea of Orion was to react small directional nuclear explosives against a large steel pusher plate attached to the spacecraft with shock absorbers. Efficient directional explosives maximized the momentum transfer, leading to specific impulses in the range of 6,000 seconds, or about 12 times that of the Space Shuttle Main Engine. With refinements, a theoretical maximum of 100,000 seconds (1 MN·s/kg) might be possible. Thrusts were in the millions of tons, allowing spacecraft larger than eight million tons to be built with 1958 materials.
  • The reference design was to be constructed of steel using submarine-style construction, with a crew of more than 200 and a vehicle takeoff weight of several thousand tons. This low-tech single-stage reference design would reach Mars and back in four weeks from the Earth’s surface (compared to ≈50 weeks for NASA’s current chemically powered reference mission). The same craft could visit Saturn’s moons in a seven-month mission (compared to chemically powered missions of about nine years).
  • A number of engineering problems were found, and solved, over the course of the project. Many of these related to crew shielding and pusher-plate lifetime. The system appeared to be entirely workable, and was under serious development in the United States, when the project was shut down in 1965. The primary reason given was that the Partial Test Ban Treaty made it illegal to detonate nuclear explosions in space (before the treaty, the United States and the Soviet Union had already detonated at least nine nuclear bombs, including thermonuclear bombs, in space; i.e., at altitudes over 100 km).
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  • Calculations showed that the fallout from a takeoff could be projected to lead to the premature death of between 1 and 10 people.
  • Project Daedalus
  • ICF uses small pellets of fusion fuel, typically lithium deuteride (6Li2H), with a small deuterium/tritium trigger at the center. The pellets are thrown into a reaction chamber where they are hit on all sides by lasers or another form of beamed energy. The heat generated by the beams explosively compresses the pellet, to the point where fusion takes place. The result is a hot plasma, and a very small “explosion” (compared to using a fission “bomb” to compress and heat the fusion fuel, as in a thermonuclear bomb).
  • This variant of a fusion rocket uses enormous electromagnetic fields as a “scoop” to collect and compress hydrogen from interstellar space.
  • High speeds force the reactive mass into a progressively constricted magnetic field, compressing it until thermonuclear fusion occurs.
  • To counter this, Bussard proposed ionizing these atoms at a safe distance using a laser beam, and using a powerful magnetic field to funnel the ionized atoms into the ship, bypassing the ship’s hull.
  • Let’s assume a constant acceleration of 1g during the first half of the ship’s journey, whereupon the ship decelerates to its destination at the same 1g for the comfort of all aboard. The resulting velocity of the ship for most of the journey would be very close to the speed of light. This would mean that the relativistic effects of time dilation come into play for the passengers.
  • For such a hypothetical voyage, Barnard’s Star—six light-years away—could be reached in a little under eight years, ship time. For longer voyages, even the center of our Milky Way galaxy could be reached in just 21 years.
  • those left behind on earth during such a hypothetical journey would perceive things very much differently. For them, millions of years would have passed.  Relativistic travels make distant interstellar space travel feasible—but only for those on board the voyage.
mollyrf2023

CDC - Get Smart: Antibiotic Resistance Questions and Answers - 0 views

  • produced a nine-minute animation
    • mollyrf2023
       
      watch the animation and screenshot images for website stop motion perhaps
claireb27

Nuclear fusion hits energy milestone - Technology & Science - CBC News - 0 views

  • For the first time, fuel for a nuclear fusion reaction has generated more energy than put into it – a scientific milestone.
  • Deuterium and tritium were coated inside the capsule at the centre of this photo
  • However, he was quick to point out that because the fuel absorbed only a small amount of the energy from the lasers, there is still far more energy put into the entire process than comes out.
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    more input than output
claireb27

Safe and sustainable - Fusion - Euratom Energy - Research & Innovation - European Commi... - 0 views

  • Safety and Environmental Assessment of Fusion Power (SEAFP)
  • chain reaction
  • absence of '
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  • no production of long-lived, highly radiotoxic products
  • very low fuel inventory in the reactor during operation and to the rapid cooling that extinguishes the fusion reactions should a malfunction occur.
  • In less than 100 years the residual activity of these materials would be less than the radiotoxicity found in the waste from a conventional coal-fired power station.
  • Fusion power does not produce any greenhouse gases
  • To generate 7 billion kilowatt hours of electricity, a 1000-megawatt fusion power station would consume about 100 kg of deuterium and three tonnes of lithium per year. This compares to the 1.5 million tonnes of coal in an equivalent fossil-fuel plant.
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    Safety
emfennelly

The Future Of Solar: Solar Power To Surge in 2014? | CleanTechnica - 0 views

  • with a limited income, most people will choose to take care of their own immediate needs before they address the needs of the planet.
  • Between 1977 and 2013, the overall cost associated with solar power dropped an amazing 99%
  • dropped 60% since the beginning of 2011
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  • new materials (such as perovskites) are becoming even cheaper to manufacture, more efficient at converting energy, and could eventually supplant current silicon cells by absorbing only specific wavelengths of light—thus making it possible to “layer” semi-transparent sheets to increase the amount of energy being generated.
nkuzio

Neurotransmitters - Chemistry Encyclopedia - structure, proteins, molecule, General Mec... - 0 views

  • Neurotransmitters are formed in a presynaptic neuron and stored in small membrane-bound sacks, called vesicles , inside this neuron. When this neuron is activated, these intracellular vesicles fuse with the cell membrane and release their contents into the synapse, a process called exocytosis.
charlottecr

Cross These Dangerous Toys Off Kids' Christmas List, Experts Say - 0 views

  • toxic levels of lead, cadmium, antimony and phthalates, said this year's "Trouble in Toyland" report from the U.S. Public Interest Research Group (PIRG).
  • f antimony, a toxic metal that has been classified as a cancer-causing agent.
  • Phthalates are chemicals suspected to cause developmental health effects. Cadmium is a toxic metal that can cause learning disabilities and kidney problems.
chasefortier

Course Information Technology: How MRI Changed the World - 0 views

  • MRI, has improved findings of malignant diseases and saved thousands of lives.
  • It has made early diagnosing of certain diseases possible.
  • especially useful in neurological (brain), musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and oncological (cancer) imaging.
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  • Damadian's invention came from his observations that the tissue in a cancerous tumor looked differently than healthy tissue, after both tissue samples had been exposed to nuclear magnetic resonance.
  • first MRI examination was performed on July 3, 1977
  • first commercially available MRI was sold in 1980
  • MRI was originally a technique that was referred to as nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI). However, because the word nuclear was associated in the public mind with ionizing radiation exposure, it is generally now referred to simply as MRI.
  • In a recent study that compared radiography and MRI, MRI demonstrated significantly more erosions than radiography.” (Mak & Hunter, 2009).  MRI has particular advantages in that it is non-invasive, using non-ionizing radiation, and has a high soft-tissue resolution and discrimination in any imaging plane. It may also provide both morphological and functional information.
  • Without this ability, it would be a challenge for physicians to diagnose the correct illness. Instead, to understand what exactly is going on inside the patient, the physicians might have to surgically open the patient.
  • MRI scans have provided valuable images, two dimensional and three dimensional, that aid physicians when they diagnose diseases or problems.
charlottecr

Cadmium Exposure and Human Health - 0 views

  • Humans normally absorb cadmium into the body either by ingestion or inhalation Dermal exposure (uptake through the skin) is generally not regarded to be of significance
  • 2% to 6% of the cadmium ingested is actually taken up into the body. Factors influencing cadmium absorption are the form in which cadmium is present in the food, and the iron status of the exposed individual. In contrast, from 30% to 64% of inhaled cadmium is absorbed by the body, with some variation as a function of chemical form, solubility and particle size of the material inhaled.
  • a greater proportion of inhaled cadmium is retained by the body than when cadmium is taken in by ingestion.
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  • Cadmium is known to accumulate in the human kidney for a relatively long time, from 20 to 30 years, and, at high doses, is also known to produce health effects on the respiratory system and has been associated with bone disease.
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    effects of cadmium on human health
claireb27

Sustainable nuclear fusion breakthrough raises hopes for ultimate green energy | Scienc... - 0 views

  • generated more energy from fusion reactions than they put into the nuclear fuel,
  • The ultimate goal – to produce more energy than the whole experiment consumes – remains a long way off
  • with zero carbon emissions during operation and minimal waste
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  • 92 powerful lasers to crush a minuscule amount of fuel so hard and fast that it becomes hotter than the sun.
  • The lasers are fired into a gold capsule that holds a 2mm-wide spherical pellet.
  • The fuel is coated on the inside of this plastic pellet in a layer as thin as a human hair.
  • When the laser light enters the gold capsule, it makes the walls of the gold container emit x-rays, which heat the pellet and make it implode with extraordinary ferocity. The fuel, a mixture of hydrogen isotopes called tritium and deuterium, partially fuses under the intense conditions.
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    article on recreating nuclear fusion and its future applications
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