In 1672, the journal published Newton's first paper New Theory about Light
and Colours
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - 0 views
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it has remained in continuous publication ever since, making it the world's longest running scientific journal
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The use of the word "philosophical" in the title derives from the phrase "natural philosophy", which was the equivalent of what we would now generically call "science
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Oldenburg published the journal at his own personal expense and seems to have entered into an agreement with the Council of the Royal Society allowing him to keep any resulting profits
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He was to be disappointed, however, since the journal performed poorly from a financial point of view during Oldenburg's lifetime
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Modern History Sourcebook: Adam Smith: The Wealth of Nations, 1776 (Epitome) - 0 views
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This great increase of the quantity of work which, in consequence of the division of labor, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances; first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workman; secondly, to the saving of the time which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another; and lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labor, and enable one man to do the work of many....
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Man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethren, and it is in vain for him to expect it from their benevolence only. He will be more likely to prevail if he can interest their self-love in his favor, and show them that it is for their own advantage to do for him what he requires of them. Whoever offers to another a bargain of any kind, proposes to do this. Give me that which I want, and you shall have this which you want, is the meaning of every such offer; and it is in this manner that we obtain from one another the far greater art of those good offices which we stand in need of. It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest.
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In order to avoid the inconvenience of such situations, every prudent man in every period of society, after the first establishment of the division of labor, must naturally have endeavored to manage his affairs in such a manner as to have at all times by him, besides the peculiar produce of his own industry, a certain quantity of some one commodity or other, such as he imagined few people would be likely to refuse in exchange for their produce....It is in this manner that money has become in all civilized nations the universal instrument of commerce, by the intervention of which goods of all kinds are bought and sold, or exchanged for one another....
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partly by the general circumstances of the society,
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partly by the particular nature of each employment
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When the price of any commodity is neither more nor less than what is sufficient to pay the rent of the land, the wages of the labor, and the profits of the stock employed in raising, preparing, and bringing it to market, according to their natural rates, the commodity is then sold for what may be called its natural price.
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he market price of every particular commodity is regulated by the proportion between the quantity which is actually brought to market, and the demand of those who are willing to pay the natural price of the commodity, or the whole value of the rent, labor, and profit, which must be paid in order to bring it thither.
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A competition will immediately begin among them, and the market price will rise more or less above the natural price, according as either the greatness of the deficiency, or the wealth and wanton luxury of the competitors, happen to animate more or less the eagerness of the competition.
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quantity brought to market exceeds the effectual demand
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A monopoly granted either to an individual or to a trading company has the same effect as a secret in trade or manufactures.
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When by an increase in the effectual demand, the market price of some particular commodity happens to rise a good deal above the natural price, those who employ their stocks in supplying that market are generally careful to conceal this change
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The exclusive privileges of corporations, statutes of apprenticeship, and all those laws which restrain, in particular employments, the competition to a smaller number than might otherwise go into them, have the same tendency, though in a less degree. They are a sort of enlarged monopolies,
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THE produce of labor constitutes the natural recompense or wages of labor.
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Such combinations, however, are frequently resisted by a contrary defensive combination of the workmen; who sometimes too, without any provocation of this kind, combine of their own accord to raise the price of their labor.....
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Masters, too, sometimes enter into particular combinations to sink the wages of labor even below this rate
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The demand for those who live by wages, therefore, necessarily increases with the increase of the revenue and stock of every country, and cannot possibly increase without it. The increase of revenue and stock is the increase of national wealth....
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It is but equity, besides, that they who feed, clothe, and lodge the whole body of the people, should have such a share of the produce of their own labor as to be themselves tolerably well fed, clothed, and lodged
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First, by restraining the competition in some employments to a smaller number than would otherwise be disposed to enter into them; Second, by increasing it in others beyond what it naturally would be; and, Third, by obstructing the free circulation of labor and stock, both from employment to employment and from place to place.
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by restraining the competition in some employments to a smaller number than might otherwise be disposed to enter into them
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and to hinder him from employing this strength and dexterity in what manner he thinks proper without injury to his neighbor is a plain violation of this most sacred property.
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An exclusive corporation necessarily weakens the force of this discipline.
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by increasing the competition in some employments beyond what it naturally would be
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by obstructing the free circulation of labor and stock both from employment to employment, and from place to place,
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Royal Society of London - 2 views
www.slideshare.net/...natural-knowledge-presentation
royal society london improvement natural knowledge presentation slideshare
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Communist Manifesto (Chapter 2) - 0 views
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The Communists do not form a separate party opposed to the other working-class parties. They have no interests separate and apart from those of the proletariat as a whole. They do not set up any sectarian principles of their own, by which to shape and mould the proletarian movement.
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1. In the national struggles of the proletarians of the different countries, they point out and bring to the front the common interests of the entire proletariat, independently of all nationality. 2. In the various stages of development which the struggle of the working class against the bourgeoisie has to pass through, they always and everywhere represent the interests of the movement as a whole.
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formation of the proletariat into a class, overthrow of the bourgeois supremacy, conquest of political power by the proletariat.
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The theoretical conclusions of the Communists are in no way based on ideas or principles that have been invented, or discovered, by this or that would-be universal reformer.
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but the abolition of bourgeois property.
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We Communists have been reproached with the desire of abolishing the right of personally acquiring property as the fruit of a man’s own labour, which property is alleged to be the groundwork of all personal freedom, activity and independence.
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, that quantum of the means of subsistence which is absolutely requisite to keep the labourer in bare existence as a labourer.
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allowed to live only in so far as the interest of the ruling class requires it.
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By freedom is meant, under the present bourgeois conditions of production, free trade, free selling and buying.
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It has been objected that upon the abolition of private property, all work will cease, and universal laziness will overtake us.
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bourgeois society ought long ago to have gone to the dogs through sheer idleness;
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Do you charge us with wanting to stop the exploitation of children by their parents? To this crime we plead guilty
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But, you say, we destroy the most hallowed of relations, when we replace home education by social. And your education! Is not that also social, and determined by the social conditions under which you educate, by the intervention direct or indirect, of society, by means of schools, &c.?
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Our bourgeois, not content with having wives and daughters of their proletarians at their disposal, not to speak of common prostitutes, take the greatest pleasure in seducing each other’s wives.
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to freedom of commerce, to the world market,
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In proportion as the exploitation of one individual by another will also be put an end to, the exploitation of one nation by another will also be put an end to. In proportion as the antagonism between classes within the nation vanishes, the hostility of one nation to another will come to an end.
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The charges against Communism made from a religious, a philosophical and, generally, from an ideological standpoint, are not deserving of serious examination.
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The ruling ideas of each age have ever been the ideas of its ruling class.
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traditional property relations
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to centralise all instruments of production in the hands of the State
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Nevertheless, in most advanced countries, the following will be pretty generally applicable.
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YouTube - Time Warp - Water Balloon to the Face - 1 views
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The Internet? We Built That - NYTimes.com - 1 views
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What sounds on the face of it like the most utopian of collectivist fantasies — millions of people sharing their ideas with no ownership claims — turns out to have made possible the communications infrastructure of our age.
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Peer networks laid the foundation for the scientific revolution during the Enlightenment, via the formal and informal societies and coffeehouse gatherings where new research was shared. The digital revolution has made it clear that peer networks can work wonders in the modern age.
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We have an endless supply of folklore about heroic entrepreneurs who changed the world with their vision and their force of will. But as a society we lack master narratives of creative collaboration.
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what the Internet and its descendants teach us is that there are now new models for doing things together, success stories that prove convincingly that you don’t need bureaucracies to facilitate public collaboration, and you don’t need the private sector to innovate
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Connectivism - 1 views
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These theories, however, were developed in a time when learning was not impacted through technology.
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The amount of knowledge in the world has doubled in the past 10 years and is doubling every 18 months according to the American Society of Training and Documentation (ASTD). To combat the shrinking half-life of knowledge, organizations have been forced to develop new methods of deploying instruction.
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learning as a lasting changed state (emotional, mental, physiological (i.e. skills)) brought about as a result of experiences and interactions with content or other people.
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Objectivism (similar to behaviorism) states that reality is external and is objective, and knowledge is gained through experiences. Pragmatism (similar to cognitivism) states that reality is interpreted, and knowledge is negotiated through experience and thinking. Interpretivism (similar to constructivism) states that reality is internal, and knowledge is constructed.
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Behaviorism states that learning is largely unknowable, that is, we can’t possibly understand what goes on inside a person (the “black box theory”)
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Cognitivism often takes a computer information processing model. Learning is viewed as a process of inputs, managed in short term memory, and coded for long-term recall.
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Constructivism suggests that learners create knowledge as they attempt to understand their experiences
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Constructivism assumes that learners are not empty vessels to be filled with knowledge. Instead, learners are actively attempting to create meaning. Learners often select and pursue their own learning. Constructivist principles acknowledge that real-life learning is messy and complex.
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In today’s environment, action is often needed without personal learning – that is, we need to act by drawing information outside of our primary knowledge.
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We can no longer personally experience and acquire learning that we need to act. We derive our competence from forming connections.
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Unlike constructivism, which states that learners attempt to foster understanding by meaning making tasks, chaos states that the meaning exists – the learner's challenge is to recognize the patterns which appear to be hidden
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The capacity to form connections between sources of information, and thereby create useful information patterns, is required to learn in our knowledge economy.
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Nodes that successfully acquire greater profile will be more successful at acquiring additional connections
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Finding a new job, as an example, often occurs through weak ties. This principle has great merit in the notion of serendipity, innovation, and creativity. Connections between disparate ideas and fields can create new innovations.
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Connectivism is the integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self-organization theories.
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Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the decision.
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This cycle of knowledge development (personal to network to organization) allows learners to remain current in their field through the connections they have formed.
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example of a Maricopa County Community College system project that links senior citizens with elementary school students in a mentor program. The children “listen to these “grandparents” better than they do their own parents, the mentoring really helps the teachers…the small efforts of the many- the seniors – complement the large efforts of the few – the teachers.” (2002). This amplification of learning, knowledge and understanding through the extension of a personal network is the epitome of connectivism.
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The pipe is more important than the content within the pipe. Our ability to learn what we need for tomorrow is more important than what we know today. A real challenge for any learning theory is to actuate known knowledge at the point of application.
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acknowledges the tectonic shifts in society where learning is no longer an internal, individualistic activity
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The Herald - 0 views
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Third, it wasn’t because communist countries rejected markets that they failed. It was because they backed off of Marxist-Leninist principles, and conciliated with capitalism, that they collapsed.
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apitalism being too weak to block the rise of revolution meant that the revolution would have to take hold in a country where the working class was small and the industrial base — necessary to progress toward a communist society of plenty — was rudimentary at best
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gainst the far right’s explanation that immigration is the cause of joblessness, the left could point out that insecurity is caused by the failure — indeed refusal — of capitalism to offer secure employment to all; that the solution is to transcend the capitalist system; and that where it has been transcended in the past, secure employment has been made available to all, along with guaranteed healthcare, security in old age, subsidised housing, free education, and a raft of other mass-oriented reforms
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Sweden, often celebrated as a social democratic paragon and held out as an attractive alternative to Marxist-Leninist-style socialism, has proved no less vulnerable to outbreaks of recession-induced xenophobia than bastions of neo-liberalism have
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Attributing the demise of really-existing socialism to internal failings, and ignoring seven decades of efforts to exterminate the communist challenge — a practice of both the right and left — is a peculiar form of blindness.
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences - 0 views
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Robert Hooke - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - 0 views
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Jump to: navigation, search Robert Hooke Portrait of Hooke, 2004. Born 18 July 1635Freshwater, Isle of Wight, England Died 3 March 1703 (aged 67)London, England Fields Physics and chemistry Institutions Oxford University Alma mater Christ Church, Oxford Academic advisors Robert Boyle Known for Hooke's LawMicroscopyapplied the word 'cell' Influences Richard Busby Contents [hide] 1 Life and works 1.1 Early life 1.2 Oxford 1.3 The Watch Balance Spring 1.4 Royal Society 2 Personality and disputes 3 Hooke the scientist 3.1 Mechanics 3.2 Gravitation 3.3 Microscopy 3.4 Astronomy 4 Hooke the architect 5 Likenesses 6 Commemorations 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links //
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Hooke is known for his law of elasticity (Hooke's law), his book, Micrographia, and for first applying the word "cell" to describe the basic unit of life
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UK science risks relegation, warns Royal Society - physicsworld.com - 0 views
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BBC News - Sick PCs should be banned from the net says Microsoft - 0 views
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The Frontier In American History: Chapter X - 0 views
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As the American pioneer passed on in advance of this new tide of European immigration, he found lands increasingly limited
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. But the captains of industry by applying squatter doctrines to the evolution of American industrial society, have made the process so clear that he who runs may read.
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it seemed not impossible that the outcome of free competition under individualism was to be monopoly of the most important natural resources and processes by a limited group of men whose vast fortunes were so invested in allied and dependent industries that they constituted the dominating force in the industrial life of the nation
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mastering the economic forces of the nation
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The Granger and the Populist were prophets of this reform movement. Mr. Bryan's Democracy, Mr. Debs' Socialism, and Mr. Roosevelt's Republicanism all had in common the emphasis upon the need of governmental regulation of industrial tendencies in the interest of the common man
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"the State University and the public school system which it crowns would be the strongest evidence of its fitness which it could offer."
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"general system of education ascending in regular gradations from township schools to a State University, wherein tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all," expresses the Middle Western conception born in the days of pioneer society and doubtless deeply influenced by Jeffersonian democracy.
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propaganda to induce students to continue
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The times call for educated leaders.
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The test tube and the microscope are needed rather than ax and rifle in this new ideal of conquest
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It is hardly too much to say that the best hope of intelligent and principled progress in economic and social legislation and administration lies in the increasing influence of American universities.
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able to think for themselves, governed Dot by ignorance, by prejudice or by impulse, but by knowledge and reason and high-mindedness,
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At first pioneer democracy had scant respect for the expert.
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That they may perform their work they must be left free, as the pioneer was free, to explore new regions and to report what they find; for like the pioneers they have the ideal of investigation, they seek new horizons.
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Thus it is the function of the university to reveal to the individual the mystery and the glory of life as a whole
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Future Shock Re-assessed by Richard Slaughter - 2 views
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both individuals and societies needed to learn how to adapt to and manage the sources of over-rapid change.
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Possibly the best section in the book is that on education. Here he advanced a powerful critique: ‘what passes for education today, even in our ‘best’ schools and colleges, is a hopeless anachronism.’ He then added: for all this rhetoric about the future, our schools face backwards towards a dying system, rather than forwards to an emerging new society. Their vastenergies are applied to cranking out Industrial Men - people tooled for survival in a system that will be dead before they are. (2) The thesis was then advanced that the prime objective of education should be to ‘increase the individual’s ‘cope-ability’ - the speed and economy with which he can adapt to continual change.’ (3) Central to this was ‘the habit of anticipation’. Assumptions, projections, images of futures would need to become part and parcel of every individual’s school experience.
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Dear Internet: It's No Longer OK to Not Know How Congress Works - 1 views
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Here's an area for both some disruption and some lobbying. Let's build tools that allow members of Congress to aggregate messages being sent to them, and to associate those messages with congressional districts. Let's come up with a way for a member to see what their constituency is saying about any particular issue they'd like, and let's provide that as an open service so that anybody can see what a particular constituency is saying. That way, when a member has a track record of voting against the desires of a substantial portion of his or her district, we've got a record of it, and it can get brought up in the next election.
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Right now, your voice online -- in the mediums you participate in, not only don't matter: legally they can't matter. Online identities don't count when it comes to the official record
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The skill of making software isn't just about making cool software. It's about rewiring society. The sooner we acknowledge that, the sooner we can get on with the rewiring, and hopefully with a watchful eye, rewire it for the better.