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Chinese researches have discovered an ability to transform the cells found in urine into stem cells. Driving these scientists was the remarkable ability that stem cells possess: the ability to transform into other cells. These scientists actually transformed the cells from urine into stem cells, and used those stem cells to create human teeth in mice jawbones. This experiment did suffer several flaws, however. These teeth-like structures did contain a number of components that real teeth are composed of: enamel, dentin, and pulp. Even so, these teeth were only one-third as hard as human teeth. Additionally, this experiment resulted in 70% of the mice absent of teeth-like structures. Despite the flaws through the experiment, this discovery comes close to the regrowth of human features and gives hope to a possible future of regenerated human teeth. Better methods of obtaining cells with the ability to become stem cells exist, further giving the world of science hope in human body repair and regrowth. 

Recent stem cell research has enabled scientists to develop mice inner ears. This new discovery has high hopes to lead to future hearing restoration for humans, and reasoning on hear loss. This astonishing breakthrough is the result of the transformation of embryonic stem cells from mice into sensory epithelia. These epithelia contain hair cells, fragile cells that allow organisms to hear. This discovery is even more shocking through the impossibility for hair cells to grow once they have been destroyed. This exciting accomplishment allows for researchers to study hair cells, and their connection to hearing.

British scientists have recently restored sight to blind mice by the use of stem cells from mice embryos. These stem cells were put into a lab dish; there, they separated into immature photo-receptors. These were then injected into the mice's retinas, and actually brought sight back into some of the blind. This successful experiment makes scientists hopeful that they can restore sight to blind humans in the future. Although these cells can become very beneficial, they can also turn cancerous. New scientific advancements have bettered the stem cell procedure, but problems with the process are still arising. 

A groundbreaking discovery in the mice ability to regenerate the tips of their digits leaves scientists hopeful for human regeneration in the future. Researches have found that as long as enough of the nail remains, any amputated digit tip has the capability to regrow. This process can be performed because of the colony of stem cells present under the nail base; however, this process can only proceed if enough of the nail epithelium remains on the amputated digit. The process that occurs after amputation starts with the activation of the Wnt pathway in the epithelium located underneath the remaining nail. After the nerves are attracted to the area, FGF2 (protein) directs the nerves into growing mesenchymal cells, cells used for regrowth. However, if too much of the digit is amputated, too much epithelium is lost, the Wnt pathway is never activated, and there is no regeneration. On another note, humans and mice are somewhat related to amphibians in their regeneration abilities; this further gives scientists hope for human regeneration in the future. The opposing side argues why humans differ from salamanders, and points out the flaws in this scientific discovery. 

Alzheimer's is actually a common form of dementia. Roughly 50-80 percent of patients with dementia are associated with Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's is considered a neurological disorder with loss of memory, thinking and behavioral function. Alzheimer's is common diagnosed in patients 65 and older with the exception of patients with Early-Onset Alzheimer's. Alzheimer's progressively worsens over time and commonly culminates in death 8 years after symptoms start to arrive. Again no cure has been found for alzheimer's, but certain medications are used to treat symptoms. A build-up of plaques and tangles in the brain is suspected to kill nerve cells and cause a loss of brain function. The loss of nerve cells causes gaps in the communication network and eventually causes a loss of function in those areas of the brain. Although scientists do not know their exact role in Alzheimer's, patients have been associated with an abundant amount of these abnormal structures.

Immunotherapy can be used to treat cancer by activating the body's immune system. One way to do this is by using Monoclonal Antibodies which stimulate a variety of immune responses that lead to tumor-cells death. Another type of immunotherapy is deactivating Checkpoint Inhibitors. These checkpoints help to make sure the immune system does not attack healthy cells; deactivating these checkpoints on cancer cells it allows the immune system to attack and has been effective in clinical trials. The third type of immunotherapy is Cytokines, which stimulates a broad immune response against a specific tumor antigen. The last type of immunotherapy is therapeutic cancer vaccines which stimulate the immune system to fight against a tumor's antigens. This is a durable response that tries to activate the immune system to fight the tumor cells. There are many ways immunotherapy can be used to help fight cancer.

Dr. Zhang's has created a liquid gel to insert into damaged parts of the brain from traumatic brain injuries. There has been little success on humans, but testing has been done on rats and there has been very positive results. On humans there has also been other techniques such as inserting donor cells into the damaged area but the cells end up dying off. Human success in the experiment is estimated to take up to 3 years. 

After the successful cloning of Dolly the sheep, scientists are hopeful to clone/bring back the mammoth from extinction. Notably well preserved blood in a recent finding of mammoth remains could lead to mammoth stem cells. With these stem cells and the use of elephant eggs to grow an embryo, a baby mammoth could be born. The stem cells could also form gametes, which, if from a female, could lead to both breeding and cloning mammoths. The method of cloning could be fairly similar to the process used to create Dolly the sheep. Although bringing back the mammoth would be beneficial for science, a debate exists arguing the issues. 

Although cloning a mammoth would be fascinating, it is not needed nor is it necessarily possible. Scientists have hopes to clone a mammoth because of the recent frozen mammoth find in Russia. This mammoth appears to have blood that does not freeze, increasing hopes to find live cells. However, some researchers argue that finding a living cell in the body of the mammoth is not possible. They say that at most, they will find a cell with DNA that is intact enough to use to clone the creature. However, ancient DNA is almost always fragmented, and would therefore, not be able to be used in the cloning process. Doubts also circulate around the idea that the mammoth's blood was able to withstand -17 degrees Celsius without freezing. The sample found may have been under special conditions to allow the blood to remain unfrozen. With the trouble it would take to clone a mammoth, it is not worth it. Scientists can learn more about mammoths through the fossil record rather than from a cloned animal. 

Washington University School of Medicine and St. Jude's Children's Research Hospital have teamed up to identify genetic mutations that cause pediatric cancer. There are over 600 patient's genes being analyzed. The tumor cells are compared to the patients healthy cells and the differences are recorded. The program is trying to identify a mutation that causes a healthy cell to turn into a cancerous one. This in turn can help scientists develop new treatments to help young cancer patients.

There is no "magic bullet" in the fight against cancer, but one step towards curing cancer is Immunotherapy. The generally accepted hypothesis is that the immune system is the best tool humans have for fighting disease. Immunotherapy is thought to be less toxic than current treatments, however it is rarely used by itself to treat cancer. There are limitations to the effectiveness of Immunotherapy; the normal immune system cannot sense tumor cells, the response from the immune system is not strong enough when the body does recognize tumor cells, and tumors can defend themselves. There are three types of Immunotherapy Passive, components of the immune system are engineered outside of the body to attack cancer cells; Active, stimulates the body's own immune system to fight cancer; and Combination, uses both passive and active activity. Passive Immunotherapy's use antibodies created outside of the body to provide immunity or help fight off a disease. One type of passive immunotherapy is Monoclonal antibody therapy (mAb), the most widely used form of immunotherapy. Active Immunotherapy work by stimulating the immune system to 'actively' respond to the disease. One type of active immunotherapy is Provenge, a therapeutic prostate cancer vaccine. Therapeutic cancer vaccines are given to patients with cancer to help stimulate the immune system to fight the cancer. Combination Therapy is still in clinical studies but is thought to have a greater potential than active or passive immunotherapy because it combines the activity of both therapies. Immunotherapy may not be the magic bullet to fighting cancer, but when used early and with other treatments it has proven effective.

This article goes on to explain two different types of tumors and then states how they start to spread. One of the types of tumors is the primary brain tumor which originates in the brain itself. This type of tumor begins as normal cells mutate their DNA and grow rapidly across the brain. The other type of brain tumor is the Secondary or Metastatic brain tumor. This type of tumor is generally caused by a metastasis of cancerous cells from other organs of the body. Most often this type of tumor originates in areas such as the breast and the colon. Of these two types of brain tumors the metastatic seems to be much more common than the primary tumors.

Though MS obviously has no cure there are plenty of procedures and medications that can be used to lessen the effects of the disease. Treating specific attacks reduces the damage to the myelin sheath. Two methods for controlling the attacks are plasma exchanges and corticosteroids. Another way to control the effects of MS is by slowing the progression of the disease. There are many different drugs that slow the rate of relapses some of which include Beta Interferons, Copaxone, Gilenya, and Tysabri. In addition to these medications, other strategies can be used to treat the symptoms, which include physical therapy and muscle relaxants. 

Using the ISOpure computational purification tool, scientists and medical professionals can develop a prognosis and treatment plan for a certain cancer patients at a much quicker rate. The tool used in this process can help identify the cancerous tissue located in the organs and provide medical professionals further notice of the proportion of RNA originating from cancer cells allowing them to develop treatment plans ahead of time. ISOpure uses an algorithm which determines the proportion of RNA in the organ(s). The real challenges of developing these treatments is of course extracting a portion of tissue with both a normal profile and a cancer profile to predict the spread of the disease. After this portion of tissue has been extracted the ISOpure modeling can process the data using simple MATLAB software. The success of this computational tool is noted to improve the prediction of extra-prostatic-extension (EPE) by 10% in cancer profiles compared to the unpurified models. 

This essay explains the types of complications related to neurological conditions and how they effect the body. The first complication is of course related to the origination of brain tumors themselves. Brain metastases is caused by the spread of cancerous cells to brain from other areas of the body. Symptoms could include that of headaches to vision problems. The next topic of discussion is the Epidural Spinal Cord Compression. This is another type of metastases which can lead to spinal cord compression and possible paralysis. Common issues associated with this type of metastases include breast, prostate, or lung cancer. Additionally, Plexopathies are caused by the spread of cancer to the plexus. This type of complication causes serious pain and has the ability to migrate towards other areas of the plexus. Leptomeningeal Metastases is caused by the spread of cells to the tissues which cover the brain and spinal cord and could effect cognitive skills. Another complication is a vascular disorder. Vascular disorders and cancer are believed to correlate with a deep vein thrombosis. Finally, paraneoplastic disorder is a complication that is caused by a group of conditions which create biological side effects. These side effects include release of substances into the blood stream and inappropriate immune system responses.

If a mutation occurs in a person's genes it can cause cancer. The future of cancer therapy is identifying and targeting these mutations. A trial at the University of Florida, known as NSCABP-FC-7 takes the genetic fingerprint of a patients DNA and gives them a personalized treatment based on the information. The idea is to move away from the traditional cytotoxic treatment, and towards less toxic personalized medicine. However, the toxicity of cancer drugs is decreasing due to technology's increasing ability to target and destroy specific cells, and not healthy cells. Washington University St. Louis as well as other institutions have become part of the study. Overall, the future of cancer treatment lies in targeted therapies and personalized medicine.

This article pertains to the neurological disorder, Parkinson's Disease (PD). PD is known to reduce motor system function due to the loss of dopamine-producing brain cells. Most symptoms related to PD include tremors, trembling, and slowness of movement (bradykinesia). As the disease progresses these tremors begin to effect daily activities like chewing and speaking. Unfortunately there is no cure for Parkinson's Disease. The most common treatment for PD is the use of medications such as levodopa. Due to complications with current medications other treatments like deep brain stimulation and surgery are commonly used. Parkinson's Disease is both chronic and progressive. Tremors and other symptoms will occur for long periods of time and possibly grow worse. Patients with PD experience varying symptoms and intensities. Current research being done in response to Parkinson's is being conducted at the National Institute of Health (NIH) and elsewhere. Current topics of research include discovering the cause of PD, and the development of protective drugs needed to delay, prevent, and even reverse the disease.

This article provides information regarding the diagnosis of brain tumors. The first step in diagnosing brain tumors is a neurological exam. This type of exam is used to check vision, hearing, strength, sensation, and other cognitive skills. If deemed necessary other exams can be performed to determine characteristics of the tumors. The first is an angiogram, which is a type of x-ray for the head which examines arteries and veins. The second type is a brain scan, which shows abnormalities using a contrast dye. Another type of scan is the CT scan which creates a 3 dimensional image of the brain which can be useful in diagnosing brain tumors especially near bones. Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) is a type of scan which measures the flow of water through white matter of the brain. This method provides a snapshot of brains structure and can be very useful during surgical procedures allowing physicians a guide to the rest of the brain. An fMRI is used to determine specific locations related to specific functions. This type of diagnostic tool helps create a guide to specific functions of the brain which is used to better prepare for surgery. The common MRI uses a magnetic field and radio waves to create pictures of the brain. A similar MRS measures the function of the brain rather than its structure. Additionally, PET scans detect changes in the cells using an injection of radioactive glucose. Finally, the most effective way to diagnose a patient is by using a biopsy. A biopsy is a surgical procedure which a profile of tissue is collected and examined under a microscope. Most biopsy's are done using surgery, although there are a couple of different types of needle biopsy's.

Proton therapy in a painless, noninvasive type of radiation to treat malignant tumors. It has been used successfully in against a variety of tumors and has fewer side affects then conventional photon therapy. Both Photon and Proton therapies work in the same ways by destroying cancer cells and preventing them from dividing. Proton therapy penetrates less healthy tissue than photon therapy. That means that proton therapy has fewer side effects and a faster recovery. Proton therapy needs time to grow. Costs for therapy rooms are falling, but many insurances do not cover proton therapy and many medical professionals need to be educated about and trained to use proton therapy. Overall proton therapy is a quickly becoming a more efficient, better way to treat cancer.

The cause of most cases of pediatric leukemia is not known, as most sufferers do not display any risk factors for the disease. However scientists have begun to understand how certain changes in DNA can cause leukemia. Cancer can be caused by mutation oncogenes, the genes that control when cells divide. A translocation between chromosomes 2 and 22 causes almost all cases of childhood chronic myeloid leukemia and childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia. Other genetic mutations can be inherited, however most of the mutations that cause leukemia develop after birth. Environmental factors, when combined with a genetic predisposition for leukemia, may trigger the disease. However the cause of most pediatric leukemia remains unknown.