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Some question the extent to which these assumptions are characteristic of adults only, pointing out that some adults are highly dependent, some children independent; some adults are externally motivated, some children intrinsically; adults' life experience can be barriers to learning; some children's experiences can be qualitatively rich (Merriam 2001; Vaske 2001)

Power differences based on race, gender, class, sexual orientation, and disability can limit adults' autonomy and ability to be self-directed

Adults do not automatically become self-directed upon achieving adulthood. Some are not psychologically equipped for it and need a great deal of help to direct their own learning effectively (Beitler 1997; Titmus 1999)

Adults may be self-directed in some situations but at other times prefer or need direction from others (Courtney et al. 1999).

Research shows that motivational, affective, and developmental factors are more crucial in adults than in younger learners; adults are more able to be self-directed and reflective and to articulate learning goals, and they are more disposed to bring their life experiences to what and how they learn (Smith and Pourchot 1998)

Studies of metacognition indicate that children and adults differ at each level due to acquired expertise and active use of expert knowledge