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Urban transport XII: urban transport and the environment in the 21st century C. A. Brebbia, V. Dolezel 0 Resenhas WIT, 2006 - 935 páginas Transportation in cities, with its related environmental and social concerns, continues to be a topic of the utmost priority for urban authorities and central governments around the world. This is reflected in the proceedings of the Twelfth International Conference on Urban Transport and the Environment in the 21st Century, stressing the continuous steady growth and research into the urban transport systems control aspects, information and simulation systems. The papers included in the volume cover a wide variety of topics, such as: Transport sustainability; Urban transport planning and management; Transport modelling and simulation; Transport logistics and operations research; Transport security and safety; Transport technology; Land use and transport integration; Environmental and ecological considerations; Intelligent transport systems; Public transport systems; Information systems and GPS applications and Road

Fifty years of transport policy: successes, failures and new challenges European Conference of Ministers of Transport, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development 0 Resenhas OECD Publishing, 2003 - 115 páginas Transport policy may well have reached a turning point. It will not be possible to manage projected traffic growth using traditional methods that concentrate on increasing infrastructure capacity. New incentives, new pricing, and new instruments to better manage investment and demand are all required. In order to meet the emerging challenges, this publication outlines a number of strategic directions for transport policy in the coming years. In addition, the publication contains a summary paper presented to Ministers at the 87th ministerial session which also marked the ECMT 50th anniversary. This publication contains the following papers: Rail Policy and Rail Subsidies - An Endless History with Weak Results By Professor Gerd Aberle European Transport Policy and the Position of Inland Navigation By Professor Gerd Aberle Assessing our Expertise By Professor Alain Bonnafous Competition vs. Regulation in Transport - The Appraisal of Past Policies and Lessons for the Future By Professor George A. Giannopoulos How Easy is it to Change Behaviour? By Professor Phil Goodwin Trends in Transport Investment Funding: Past, Present and Future By Mrs Eva Molnar Main Transport Policy Issues in Transitional Economies in Central and Eastern Europe By Professor Wojciech Suchorzewski Transport Policy Development in Europe 1950-2020 By Professor José Manuel Viegas

Research Papers 220)     Cowen, Deborah and Vanessa Parlette Inner Suburbs at Stake: Investing in Social Infrastructure in Scarborough, June 2011, 86pp. ISSN 0316-0068; ISBN 978-0-7727-1482-4. 219)     Jim Simmons, Larry Bourne, and Shizue Kamikihara, The Changing Economy of Urban Neighbourhoods: An Exploration of Place of Work Data for the Greater Toronto Region, December 2009, 44 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1477-0 218)     Greg Suttor, Rental Paths from Postwar to Present: Canada Compared, December 2009, 59 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1476-3 217)     Michael Noble, Lovely Spaces in Unknown Places: Creative City Building in Toronto's Inner Suburbs, March 2009, 50 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1474-9 216)     Jason Hackworth, Habitat for Humanity and the Neoliberal Media: A Comparison of News Coverage in Canada and the United States, March 2009, 39 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1473-2 215)     David Wachsmuth, From Abandonment to Affordable Housing: Policy Options for Addressing Toronto's Abandonment Problem, November 2008, 48 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1472-5 214)     Katharine N. Rankin, with the assistance of Jim Delaney, Courtney Hood, Justin Ngan and Sabin Ninglekhu, Commercial Change in Toronto's West-Central Neighbourhoods, September 2008 ISBN-13 978-0-7727-1471-8 213)     Emily Paradis, Sylvia Novac, Monica Sarty, J. David Hulchanski, Better Off in a Shelter? A Year of Homelessness and Housing among Status Immigrant, Non-Status Migrant, and Canadian-Born Families, July 2008, 89 pp. ISBN-13 978-0-7727-1469-5 212)     Duncan Maclennan, Housing for the Toronto Economy, July 2008, 72 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1468-8 211)     R. Alan Walks and Richard Maaranen, The Timing, Patterning, & Forms of Gentrification & Neighbourhood Change in Montreal, Toronto, & Vancouver, 1961 to 2001, May 2008, 109 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-1465-7 210)     Jason Hackworth, Neoliberalism, Social Welfare, and the Politics of Faith in the United States, June 2007, 36 pp. ISBN 978-0-7727-145

Mechanisms of Growth Today, there are four primary mechanisms that have fueled the current growth pattern within our towns and neighborhoods. None of these are financially sustainable. 1. Transfer payments between governments. Nearly every city in America is reliant, to one degree or another, on intergovernmental subsidies to finance infrastructure. Whether the money comes through an established program, an earmark or a block grant, the result is the same: a land use pattern that does not reflect local economic realities. Local values and priorities are distorted when there is little pressure to generate a return on public infrastructure investments. The result: inefficient growth patterns that cannot be financially sustained. At the same time our infrastructure maintenance liabilities are ballooning, our federal and state legislatures are struggling to reconcile huge budget shortfalls. Even if it were good policy, the reality is that we do not have the ability to build Strong Towns with intergovernmental transfer payments as they are currently designed. 2. Demand-driven transportation spending. Transportation improvements today are made primarily to increase safety and reduce congestion. After two generations of trying to build our way out of congestion, we not only have massive maintenance liabilities but congestion is actually worse. An approach to transportation spending that pits federal and state priorities (transportation) against local priorities (land use) when we should be linking them is a recipe for waste and inefficiency. To add to this disconnect, federal transportation policy actually rewards states with additional funds for building additional roads, regardless of their efficiency. Political meddling, often in the form of earmarks, further distorts transportation spending by prioritizing improvements based on political clout, not overall return on the public investment.  3. Debt, both public and private. Where we once paid for infrastructure

The City as a Terminal The Urban Context of Logistics and Freight Transport Imprint: Ashgate Published: November 2008 Format: 234 x 156 mm Extent: 224 pages Binding: Hardback ISBN: 978-0-7546-0913-1 Price : £55.00 » Website price: £49.50 BL Reference: 388.3'3 LoC Control No: 2008025990   Print friendly information sheet Send to a friend Markus Hesse, University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg Series : Transport and Mobility The on-time delivery of goods is regarded as a primary factor of the urban economy and is being monitored by businesses and government alike. However, much analysis of freight transportation and the flow of goods into, out of and within urban areas focuses on functional, business-related approaches. This book examines the interrelationship between logistics development on one hand and urban development and geographical issues, such as land use and location, on the other. Avoiding certain one-dimensional views on 'logistics impacts on the city', it discloses the complex interaction of the logistics system with the entire urban environment. It also bridges the gap between recent geographical research into new production systems and (post)modern consumption patterns. Illustrated with case studies from the United States, Germany, France, The Netherlands and the United Kingdom, it examines issues such as: the historical nexus between urban areas and logistics; current urban developments with regards to goods distribution; city-region related characteristics of freight flows; locational dynamics; and specific freight related urban problems and conflicts. Contents: Preface; Introduction: the city as terminal. Logistics and freight distribution in an urban context; The city - from market place to terminal; Technocapitalism and logistics transformation; Geographies of distribution; The Berlin-Brandenburg case study; The Northern California case study; Logistics and freight distribution from a policy and planning perspective; Stability and change: lo

For four decades, the Center for Urban Policy Research has served the nation with basic and applied research on a broad spectrum of public policy issues. CUPR, a component of the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy, is nationally and internationally recognized for its research on affordable housing, land use policy, environmental impact analysis, state planning, public finance, land development practice, historic preservation, infrastructure assessment, development impact analysis, the costs of sprawl, transportation information systems, environmental impacts, and community economic development. As a full-time academic research institution, CUPR has developed a wide array of fiscal, environmental, transportation, and quality of life impact models that have been used in major public policy evaluations throughout the United States. Housed within the center is CUPR Press, one of the nation's premier publishers in the field of city and regional planning. (CUPR Press is now joined with Transaction Publishers.) Also housed there is R/ECON, a quarterly economic forecasting service for the state; the New Jersey Public Policy Research Institute (NJPPRI), a research center specializing in policy for and about the African-American community; and the Community Development Institute (CDI), a training institute for community development professionals. The Center's multidisciplinary faculty and staff have backgrounds in city and regional planning, economics, public administration, regional science, sociology, urban geography, computer programming, geographic information systems, and statistics. They have testified as expert witnesses before all branches of the federal government as well as state and local governments. Since its founding, the Center has completed more than $40 million in sponsored research for federal agencies, major private foundations, state and local government agencies in New Jersey, and a score of other states and private funders. Fede

Unsustainable transport: city transport in the new century David Banister 0 Resenhas Taylor & Francis, 2005 - 292 páginas The book addresses the linkages between transport and sustainable urban development, from an analysis of the global picture through issues relating to transport and energy intensity, public policy and the institutional and organizational constraints on change. The central part of the book explores the linkages in more detail at the city level, covering land use and development, economic measures, and the role that technology can play. The final part looks for inspiration to events in developing countries and the means by which we can move from the unsustainable present to a more sustainable future.

O custo social (custo privado + custo externo) dos trasnportes urbano é uma informação extremamente relevante, já que nela que se fundamenta as decisões governamentais sobre dos diferentes modos de transportes. Esta é uma questão que mobiliza a Sara na elaboração do artigo na disciplina Economia dos Trasnportes. No Brasil temos muito o que fazer neste âmbito.

Research Project Visions of the Role of Walking and Cycling in 2030 The Transport Studies Unit, University of Oxford, is a major partner in a £1.4m, three year project that aims to develop visions of sustainable urban futures. 'Visions of the role of walking and cycling in 2030' (Visions2030) seeks to revitalise the quality of walking and cycling in the UK and explore ways in which more people might be encouraged to use these modes in the future. Funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), the research commenced in October 2008 and also involves the universities of Leeds, East Anglia, Salford and Manchester. It builds upon a growing recognition that walking and cycling can make a considerable contribution to sustainable transport goals, public health and the sociability of communities. The amount of walking and cycling in the United Kingdom has declined significantly over the last sixty years and previous research suggests that there are currently major obstacles preventing people from using these modes. Visions2030 is unashamedly radical in its approach to this challenge and will examine the means by which a fundamental change to both the quantity and quality of such 'active travel' can occur. Public engagement with the visioning process is a key priority, and a range of participatory tools will enable people to weave their own stories in and out of expert visions, thus opening up the possibility of a richer and expanded set of visions, grounded in real experiences. James Macmillen, research fellow at the Transport Studies Unit, comments: "Urban space is an extremely precious resource and our society needs to think seriously about how we would like our cities to function. This research represents a fantastic opportunity to improve the conditions for pedestrians and cyclists in the UK." Further Information For more information and output from this research project, please see the Visions2030 website.

SPRAWL Sick of the suburbs: How badly designed communities trash our health 21 BY SCOTT CARLSON 23 JAN 2012 7:36 AM Richard Jackson, from the PBS miniseries, Designing Healthy Communities. This story is excerpted from a longer piece in the Chronicle of Higher Education. Researchers can have revelatory moments in remarkable places - the African savannah, an ancient library, or the ruins of a lost civilization. But Richard J. Jackson's epiphany occurred in 1999 in a banal American landscape: a dismal stretch of the car-choked Buford Highway, near the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta. Jackson, who was then the head of the National Center for Environmental Health at the CDC, was rushing to get to a meeting where leading epidemiologists would discuss the major health threats of the 21st century. On the side of the road he saw an elderly woman walking, bent with a load of shopping bags. It was a blisteringly hot day, and there was little hope that she would find public transportation. ((At that moment, Jackson says, "I realized that the major threat was how we had built America." His center had already been dealing with problems that he suspected had origins in the built environment - asthma caused by particulates from cars and trucks, lead poisoning from contaminated houses and soil, and obesity, heart conditions, and depression exacerbated by lack of access to fresh food, stressful living conditions, long commutes, and isolating, car-oriented communities. Treatments could come in the form of pills, inhalers, and insulin shots, but real solutions had bigger implications. "More and more, I came to the conclusion that this is about how we build the world that we live in," he says. Jackson, who is now a professor and chair of environmental health sciences at the University of California at Los Angeles' School of Public Health, has since become one of the leading voices calling for better urban design for the sake

Transit Oriented Development Making it Happen Imprint: Ashgate Published: June 2009 Format: 234 x 156 mm Extent: 312 pages Binding: Hardback ISBN: 978-0-7546-7315-6 Price : £65.00 » Website price: £58.50 BL Reference: 388.4 LoC Control No: 2008053685   Print friendly information sheet Send to a friend Edited by Carey Curtis, Curtin University of Technology, Australia, John L. Renne, University of New Orleans, USA and Luca Bertolini, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands Series : Transport and Mobility Transit Oriented Development: Making it Happen brings together the different stakeholders and disciplines that are involved in the conception and implementation of TOD to provide a comprehensive overview of the realization of this concept in Australia, North America, Asia and Europe. The book identifies the challenges facing TOD and through a series of key international case studies demonstrates ways to overcome and avoid them. The insights gleaned from these encompass policy and regulation, urban design solutions, issues for local governance, the need to work with community and the commercial realities of TOD. Contents: Preface; Part I: The Context for Transit Oriented Development: Introduction, Luca Bertolini, Carey Curtis and John L. Renne; Planning for transit oriented development: strategic principles Peter Newman; Public transport and sustainable urbanism: global lessons Robert Cervero. Part II Implementation: Tools: Implementing transit oriented development through regional plans: a case study of Western Australia, Carey Curtis; Rail friendly transport and land-use policies: the case of the regional metro system of Naples and Campania, Ennio Cascetta and Francesca Pagliara; Retrofitting TOD and managing the impacts: the case of Subi Centro, Andrew Howe, Geoff Glass and Carey Curtis; From concept to projects: Stedenbaan, The Netherlands, Verena Balz and Joost Schrijnen; An Asian model of TOD: the planning integration in Singapore, Perry Pei-Ju Yang and

ECMT Round Tables (De)Regulation of the Taxi Industry OECD, European Conference of Ministers of Transport. Published by : OECD Publishing Version: Print (Paperback) + Free PDF Price:   €50 | $70 | £45 | ¥6500 | MXN900 Standard shipping included!     Imprint:  European Conference of Ministers of Transport Availability: Available (Print on Demand)  Publication date:  15 Mar 2007  Language: English  Pages: 169  ISBN: 9789282101124  OECD Code: 742007021P1    Other Versions & Languages | Table of contents This Round Table examines the basic case for liberalisation of the taxi industry, and reviews experiences with taxi (de-)regulation in OECD and ECMT member countries. There are a number of aspects to regulation of the taxi industry including entry, price and service quality regulation. The discussions of these aspects concluded that little empirical evidence supported the argument that entry restrictions improved capacity utilisation. On the contrary, the case could be made that increased entry and associated economies of density, as well as shorter passenger waiting times, warranted subsidies for entry. Other languages:  French (Available (Print on Demand)) Other Versions:  E-book - PDF Format Further reading: Economic Aspects of Taxi Accessibility - (Available (Print on Demand)) Table of contents: Quebec: The Role of Taxis in Public Transport by D. Cartier Experiences with (De-)Regulation in the European Taxi Industry by J.-T. Bekken Deregulation of the Taxi Industry: Experiences in the Netherlands by P. Bakker Regulation of the Taxi Industry: Some Economic Background by A. and E. Liston-Heyes When the Regulator Acknolwedges the Existence of Two Distinct Market for Taxi Services by R. Darbera

Managing Urban Traffic Congestion OECD, European Conference of Ministers of Transport. Published by : OECD Publishing Version: Print (Paperback) + Free PDF Price:   €75 | $105 | £67 | ¥9700 | MXN1350 Standard shipping included!     Imprint:  European Conference of Ministers of Transport Availability: Available  Publication date:  04 Jun 2007  Language: English  Pages: 296  ISBN: 9789282101285  OECD Code: 772007011P1    Other Versions & Languages | Multilingual summaries | Table of contents This report addresses key issues concerning managing urban traffic congestion, including defining congestion, measuring congestion, assessing its impacts, formulating a strategic vision for guiding management policies, and using technology and other operational options to ameliorate congestion.  It offers policy-oriented, research-based recommendations for effectively managing traffic and cutting excess congestion in large urban areas. Other Versions:  E-book - PDF Format Multilingual summaries:  English Further reading: Young Drivers - The Road to Safety (Available) Speed Management - (Available) Table of contents: Executive Summary and Policy Considerations 1. Defining and Characterising Congestion 2. Measuring Congestion: Methods and Indicators 3. Causes of Congestion in Urban Areas 4. Overview of Traffic Congestion and Congestion Approaches in Member Countries 5. Conceptual Frameworks for Assessing Congestion and its Impacts 6. Congestion Management Strategic Principles 7. Integrated Transport Planning 8. Improving the Reliability of Urban Road System Performance 9. Locking In the Benefits of Available Capacity: Access Control, Parking Management, and Road Congestion 10. Congestion Management Measures that Release or Provide New Capacity 11. Congestion Response Strategies: Getting the Decision Process on Track Bibliography

[URBGEOG] CALL FOR PAPERS: Networked Regions and cities in times of fragmentation, 13-16 May 2012, Delft University of Technology, Netherlands Entrada X   Responder a todos Cristina Comunian Cristina.Comunian@regionalstudies.org para URBGEOG mostrar detalhes 10:13 (3 horas atrás) Regional Studies Association International Conference 2012 13 - 16 May 2012 - Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands Networked regions and cities in times of fragmentation: Developing smart, sustainable and inclusive places Call for papers Extended deadline for abstract submission: 20th February 2012 (early bird rates are also extended to the 20th February, after this date the full rate will apply)   http://www.regionalstudies.org/events/2012/May-Delft/    "…..Regions and cities are increasingly interdependent; economically, socially and environmentally. They are becoming more reliant on interregional flows of trade, labour and resources. Patterns of interactions between regions are experiencing rapid changes as a result of dramatic shifts in production and consumption patterns, advances in communication technologies and the development of transport infrastructure(…) The governance of regions faces multi-level, multi-actor and multi-sectoral challenges. New spatial interactions at new scales demand new approaches for consultation and coordination. More flexible forms of governance are emerging, working around traditional governmental arrangements. The result is a complex pattern of overlapping governance and fuzzy boundaries(…)"   The 2012 RSA conference in Delft provides a timely opportunity for participants to come together and reflect on the various strengths, weaknesses, challenges and opportunities of networked cities and regions within these different contexts of fragmentation.   Gateway Themes A. EU Regional policy and practice B. Climate change, energy and sustainability

Évoquer le vocable « politiques urbaines temporelles » ou « politiques territoriales temporelles » est une nouveauté. Associer les politiques publiques, locales notamment, à des formes de régulation des temporalités urbaines, au moment où celles-ci sont rythmées par l'individualisation des pratiques quotidiennes, peut même apparaître comme une ambition démesurée par rapport aux marges de manœuvre dont disposent les pouvoirs publics locaux.

Successful mass transit solutions are rare in poor cities. When they appear they are lauded across the globe and too often copied uncritically. The latest exemplar of such best practice is the 'Transmilenio' rapid bus system in Bogot. The article describes its main characteristics and applauds the improvements that it has already brought to urban transport in Bogot. Naturally, the system is not without its flaws and these need to be drawn to the attention of those who might copy the Bogot example. This is particularly important at the present time when the jewel of Bogot has come under surprisingly strong local criticism over its cost, its ownership structure, its decreasing effectiveness and, fundamentally, because it has failed to solve the transport chaos of Bogot. There is a real danger that 'Transmilenio' will stagnate as its popularity declines and as demands for a metro increase. Given the strengths of the system that would be something of a disaster and, most certainly, not in the interests of the poor

The construction industry is consistently ranked as one of the most corrupt industries worldwide. The impact of corruption goes beyond bribe payments to poor-quality construction of transport infrastructure with low-economic returns alongside low funding for maintenance. Regulation of the construction sector is necessary, but simplicity, transparency, enforcement and a focus on the outcomes of poor construction are likely to have the largest impact. Where government is the client, attempts to counter corruption need to begin at the level of planning and budgeting. Output-based and community-driven approaches show some promise as tools to reduce corruption, they will need to be complemented by a range of other interventions including publication of procurement documents, independent and community oversight, physical audit and public-private anti-corruption partnerships.

Welcome to Visions 2030 Funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), this research commenced in October 2008 and involves the universities of Leeds, Oxford, East Anglia, Salford and Manchester, in consultation with local walking and cycling groups in four UK cities. It builds upon a growing recognition that walking and cycling can make a considerable contribution to sustainable transport goals, public health and the sociability of communities. The amount of walking and cycling in the United Kingdom has declined significantly over the last sixty years and previous research suggests that there are currently major obstacles preventing people from using these modes. Visions2030 is unashamedly radical in its approach to this challenge and will examine the means by which a fundamental change to both the quantity and quality of such 'active travel' can occur. Public engagement with the visioning process is a key priority, and a range of participatory tools will enable people to weave their own stories in and out of expert visions, thus opening up the possibility of a richer and expanded set of visions, grounded in real experiences. This research assesses the potential in the UK for achieving substantial increases in walking and cycling by 2030. Evidence based pathways will be developed with input from a new range of participatory tools to determine the suitability of alternative packages of measures. Through innovative approaches to analysis, more challenging longer term targets can be reached and the step changes necessary to fully maximise the potential of walk and cycling in achieving a sustainable transport system and a more inclusive society can be realised.

New Horizons in Regional Science series Series editor: Philip McCann, University of Groningen, The Netherlands and University of Waikato, New Zealand Regional science analyses important issues surrounding the growth and development of urban and regional systems and is emerging as a major social science discipline. This new series will provide an invaluable forum for the publication of high quality scholarly work on urban and regional studies, industrial location economics, transport systems, economic geography and networks. New Horizons in Regional Science aims to publish the best work by economists, geographers, urban and regional planners and other researchers from throughout the world. It is intended to serve a wide readership including academics, students and policymakers. For submissions in this series please contact our commissioning editor - http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/proposal.lasso The Regional Economics Of Knowledge And Talent Karlsson, C. Johansson, B. Stough, R.R. 'The Regional Economics of Knowledge and Talent, edited by Charlie Karlsson, Börje Johansson and Roger R. Stough brings together a wide range of cutting edge studies and research on the role of talent... read more... Hardback c$160.00 on-line price c$144.00   Qty Innovation, Global Change And Territorial Resilience Cooke, P. Parrilli, M.D. Curbelo, J.L. 'Innovation, Global Change and Territorial Resilience is indeed a timely contribution addressing the challenges that the global economy poses for local, regional and national economies. In the current... read more... Hardback c$210.00 on-line price c$189.00   Qty Creative Knowledge Cities van Geenhuizen, M. Nijkamp, P. This book adopts a holistic, integrated and pragmatic approach to exploring the myths, concepts, policies, key conditions and tools for enhancing creative knowledge cities, as well as expounding poten... read more... Hardback $205.00 on-line price $184.50   Qty Societies In Motion Frenkel, A. Nijka

eview of Peter Norton's "Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City" This review of mine was just published in Isis, volume 100 (June, 2009), 426-7: Peter D. Norton. Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City. (Inside Technology.) xii + 396 pp., illus., figs., index. Cambridge, Mass./London: MIT Press, 2008. $35 (cloth). During the early 1960s, as the Golden Age of the automobile in America began to wane, several commentators, including Lewis Mumford, raised the critical question of whether the automobile existed for the modern city or the city for the automobile? How and when the automobile became central to urban life is deftly addressed in Peter Norton's Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City. This study is certainly one of the most important monographs focusing on the place of the automobile in American society within a historical context to appear in recent times, and interestingly supplements David Blanke's Hell on Wheels: The Promise and Peril of America's Car Culture, 1900-1940 (University of Kansas Press, 2007). In the process of telling his story, Norton convincingly demonstrates that it was people acting within interest groups who decided how the automobile would be used; this is not a tale of a technology having an irrepressible effect on the marketplace. Norton, who teaches in the Department of Science, Technology, and Society at the University of Virginia, blends an empirical study of a battle for urban streets with a theoretical analysis based on social constructivist theory. His effort is well balanced, clearly articulated, and fundamentally successful, with little of the dense abstract analysis that tends to drive a good number of general readers away from this kind of scholarship. Above all, Fighting Traffic is an engaging story that pits a number of diverse constituencies in a struggle over who would control city streets. These groups included pedestrians, safety refo