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The prevailing assumption by some that deep processing promotes stronger learning outcomes while surface processing promotes weaker learning outcomes has been called into question by the inconsistency and ambiguity of results in investigations of the relation between levels of processing and performance. The purpose of this literature review is to examine four areas that may be contributing to the inconsistency and ambiguity of these research results: conceptualization, operationalization, situational factors, and model specification of deep and surface processing.

The paper aims at conceptual clarification relating context and deep learning design. ► The article first explores the nature of 'deep learning design'. ► Context is proposed as the key unit of organization for deep learning design. ► Learning contexts are articulated in terms of principles, heuristics and scripts. ► The impact of the nested nature of contexts on learning design is explored in depth.

The features of Deep and Surface approaches can be summarised thus: (based on Ramsden, 1988) The Surface learner is trying to suss out what the teacher wants and to provide it, and is likely to be motivated primarily by fear of failure.