The prevailing assumption by some that deep processing promotes stronger learning outcomes while surface processing promotes weaker learning outcomes has been called into question by the inconsistency and ambiguity of results in investigations of the relation between levels of processing and performance. The purpose of this literature review is to examine four areas that may be contributing to the inconsistency and ambiguity of these research results: conceptualization, operationalization, situational factors, and model specification of deep and surface processing.
Formative assessment functions within online learning. ► Formative assessment by the individual, peers and the teacher. ► Threats to validity and reliability in the context of online formative assessment. ► Ongoing authentic assessment deters threats to validity and reliability. ► Interactive formative feedback addresses threats to validity and reliability.
Summary of the 18 key empirical studies included in this review.