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90% of the 81 central banks surveyed by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) are exploring central bank digital currency (CBDC). Compared with last year's survey, the share of  central banks currently developing a CBDC or running a pilot almost doubled from 14% to 26%, and 62% are conducting experiments or proofs-of-concept. The results show that the work on retail CBDCs is at a more advanced stage than the work on wholesale CBDCs. Almost one fifth of central banks are developing or testing a retail CBDC, which is twice the share of central banks building or piloting a wholesale CBDC, which is increasingly driven by reasons related to cross-border payments efficiency. 68% of the surveyed central banks consider that they are likely to or might possibly issue a retail CBDC in either the short or medium term.

The Bank of Japan (BOJ) published a progress report on its central bank digital currency (CBDC) proof of concept (POC) work. It's available only in Japanese, so I'm leaning on Norbert Gehrke's excellent summary. The BOJ is building an account-type CBDC ledger that covers everything from user wallets/apps to the intermediary and central systems. In parallel, the BOJ has established a CBDC Forum with 64 private companies organized into five working group themes, with more planned. The BOJ aims to steadily advance CBDC discussions through POCs and the CBDC Forum, although no decision has been made yet on actual CBDC issuance. https://www.boj.or.jp/paym/digital/dig240422a.pdf

The IMF's Dong He published an update on ongoing work being undertaken by the IMF's Monetary and Capital Markets Department on the implications of central bank digital currency (CBDC) for monetary policy. He argued that universally convertible and interoperable CBDC could bolster the role of central bank money as both the ultimate settlement asset and the unit of account, and preserve the central bank's capacity to implement monetary policy effectively in the digital age. An important challenge will be to figure out how the demand for reserves would be affected by the introduction of CBDC. The operational framework may need to be reconfigured to deal with increased volatility in the demand for reserves, and central bank capital buffers may also need to be revisited if balance sheet materially increases in size and in financial risks because of CBDC adoption. An interest-bearing CBDC could amplify the passthrough from policy interest rates to broader monetary conditions, albeit at the risk of disintermediating banks if the interest rate is set too high. But even a non-interest-bearing CBDC could enhance the channels of monetary policy transmission, although the magnitude of this effect is anticipated to be modest and heavily reliant on country characteristics, such as the capacity of CBDC to advance financial inclusion or diminish the appeal of currency substitution.

This article analyzes the current central bank digital currency (CBDC) landscape. A sample of potential candidate countries for establishing a CBDC was selected, motives for implementing a CBDC were collected, and variables were assigned to these motives. Statistical methods were applied to obtain a sample of the countries with the highest correlation with three CBDC "pioneer" countries (Bahamas, China, and Uruguay). The results show that the Baltic Sea area (Lithuania, Estonia, and Finland) is a good CBDC candidate, in South America it's Brazil, and in Asia, China and Malaysia show high correlations with the three pioneer countries. In Africa, South Africa stands out as an optimal area for CBDC implementation.

Bank of Canada Deputy Governor Tim Lane said that CBDC should have limits on how much anonymity it gives users, there would need to be a trade-off in terms of privacy were a CBDC to act as a replacement or complement to cash. A central bank should not issue CBDC that would increase the scope for illicit transactions to take place. The Bank of Canada has been exploring different CBDC infrastructure models to find an optimal balance between regulation and privacy, but CBDC would not be able to offer the same cash-like degree of anonymity on an unlimited scale.

In 2022, the BISIH will launch new projects into CBDCs, next generation payments systems and Decentralised Finance (DeFi). CBDCs and improvements in payments systems account for 13 out of 17 projects that were active in 2021 or will be launched in 2022. Project Aurum, to be run out of the BISIH's Hong Kong hub, is one of the new CBDC projects. It will study the benefits and challenges of tiered architectures for the distribution of retail CBDC through banks and payment service providers, focusing on hybrid CBDC and private CBDC-backed e-money architectures.

Visa has teamed up with Ethereum scaling firm ConsenSys to help central bank digital currency (CBDC) networks bridge the gap with traditional financial institutions. Visa has created a CBDC Payments Module to serve as an on-ramp for CBDCs to existing payment networks. Banks and issuer processors will be able to plug into the module and integrate their existing infrastructure. Customers will eventually be able to use their CBDC-linked Visa card or digital wallet anywhere that Visa is accepted globally. Visa is currently in the process of integrating the Module with the ConsenSys Codefi CBDC sandbox powered by ConsenSys Quorum.

The IMF published a paper that synthesizes four lessons from the experiences of six Asian e-money schemes (Alipay and WeChat Pay in China; Paytm in India; and GoPay, GrabPay, and ShopeePay in Southeast Asia) for central banks as they consider CBDC issuance: CBDC should embody trust, convenience, efficiency, and security; CBDC service providers can facilitate adoption by leveraging digital technology, targeting use cases, developing business models, and complying with legal and regulatory requirements; central banks could incentivize CBDC service providers to develop these four channels when considering CBDC adoption; and central banks may be able to establish data-sharing arrangements that preserve privacy while leaving room for CBDC service providers to explore the economic value of data.

"We develop a medium size dynamic stochastic general equilibrium (DSGE) model to assess the macroeconomic consequences of introducing an interest-bearing central bank digital currency (CBDC), an electronic alternative of payment with public use properties of cash and that can furnish as bank settlement balances. The model consists of seven sectors, namely households, retail firms, wholesale firms, capital producing firms, commercial banks, central bank, and government, and offers rich features. The use of cash and CBDC is differentiated with respect to their prices and transaction costs. In particular, we quantify the effects of negative shock on CBDC transaction cost to evaluate the potential of CBDC as an alternate instrument in liquidity holding in addition to cash and bank deposits. We also examine the effects of productivity shock and monetary policy shock on CBDC interest rate and CBDC demand, and their interaction with other main variables of the model."

The BIS published a paper that that explores the implications of central bank digital currency (CBDC) remuneration and convenience, focusing on the US monetary system with its large excess reserves, with the rate of interest on reserves (IOR) as the main monetary policy tool. The paper finds that at low IOR rates, large banks are non-responsive to IOR rate changes, leading to weak pass-through of IOR rate changes to deposit rates. Here an interest-bearing CBDC could provide competitive pressure to drive up deposit rates and improve monetary policy transmission. However, increasing remuneration past a point where it becomes a binding floor, increases deposit rates but leads to greater inequality of market shares in both deposit and lending markets, and reducing deposit rate responsiveness to IOR changes... The paper also finds that payment convenience is a crucial aspect of CBDC design that may be more desirable than remunerating CBDC. Payment convenience could be driven by a host of features that enhance the performance of CBDC as a medium of exchange. Examples include the quality of the user interface, processing speed, privacy and access to markets. A highly convenient CBDC produces sufficient competitive pressure in deposit markets to raise deposit rates for any given level of IOR and increases the responsiveness of deposit rates to IOR rate changes. Increasing payment convenience also has favorable effects on market composition by levelling the playing field

Norges Bank plans to prepare a recommendation by end-2025 on whether a retail central bank digital currency (CBDC) should be introduced in Norway and in what form. The just-completed fourth phase consisted of experimental testing of technical solutions, analysis of scenarios for the payment system, evaluation of consequences for liquidity management and monetary policy and a review of the legislative changes necessary to permit the introduction of a CBDC. The fifth and final phase will analyse the possibilities afforded by, and the impact of, introducing a retail CBDC and test candidate solutions, and also research new forms of settlement in central bank money that can facilitate innovation in the financial system (e.g., wholesale CBDC). Norges Bank also published a research paper CBDC-related paper on potential effects of a CBDC on liquidity and monetary policy. https://www.norges-bank.no/en/news-events/news-publications/Reports/Norges-Bank-Papers/2023/memo-22023-dsp-rapport-fase-4/

An Arab Monetary Fund survey found that 76% of 17 Arab central banks are studying the possibilities of issuing central bank digital currency (CBDC), and three of them are participating in experiments to issue them. Two are expected to issue a CBDC in the next three years, while 60% of them expect to be able to issue within six years. 69% of Arab central banks are in the process of determining the type of CBDC issue, while 25% of them are involved in projects/studies to issue more than one type of CBDCs. Financial inclusion comes at the top of the motives to issue retail CBDCs, while for wholesale CBDCs it is combating money laundering and terrorist financing.

The IMF published a Fintech Note on key findings from the Sub-Saharan Africa CBDC and Digital Payments Survey, shedding light on the motivations, benefits, and challenges of CBDC adoption, as well as the developments of digital private money and crypto assets in sub-Saharan Africa. More than 75% of the 33 central banks surveyed are engaged in-or are planning to engage in-CBDC research or pilot activities. Of these, roughly two-thirds are in the research phase, and slightly over one-third are planning to conclude their CBDC pilot programs within the next two years. More than a quarter are actively preparing to launch a CBDC by 2028, although legal challenges pose major hurdles to getting to that point. Financial inclusion, efficiency in domestic payments and facilitating remittances are the most dominant motivations for CBDC adoption. Fast payment systems and e-Money (such as mobile money) are considered as quick wins in sub-Saharan Africa, and about two-thirds of countries are in the process of implementing or considering fast payment systems that are mostly accessible through mobile phones or the internet.

94% of the 86 central banks surveyed (between October 2023 and January 2024) by the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) are exploring central bank digital currency (CBDC). 54% are experimenting with proofs of concept and 31% are running a pilot. Around 30% of central banks focus on retail CBDCs only and 2% are working on wholesale CBDCs only, and it is more likely that central banks will issue a wholesale CBDC within the next six years than retail CBDC. More emerging market (EMDE) central banks are likely to issue a retail CBDC on a distributed ledger than advanced economy (AE) central banks, perhaps reflecting a willingness to leapfrog moving from legacy systems to cutting-edge technologies. Also, this year the survey also provides insight into the use of stablecoins for payments and regulatory approaches to crypto-assets across the globe.

Banca d'Italia published a paper in July 2003 that uses a theoretical model to study how the introduction of a central bank digital currency (CBDC) by a systemic economy can affect the choices of residents in a small open economy. It finds that an increase in the preference for the foreign CBDC induces a banking crisis and has a negative impact on GDP, the greater the more the foreign CBDC is perceived as deposit-like. Public authorities can mitigate these effects with multiple tools: by taxing the CBDC, by easing macroprudential requirements, or through FX interventions. A higher stock of foreign CBDC held by households can shield the small economy from an increase in the interest rate on external debt, if the remuneration of the CBDC remains constant.

m-CBDC arrangements are most effective and efficient if the multiple CBDCs are hosted on the same infrastructure and platform. But this runs into a significant governance challenge: some central banks will be unwilling to share their CBDC infrastructure with certain other central banks, and some central banks may not be willing to share their infrastructure with anyone at all. One possible solution would be to "unbundle" the digital currency stack to improve governability of m-CBDC networks and create a viable path towards making m-CBDC arrangements a reality. This article will briefly explore the concept of a digital currency stack, with the aim of encouraging further discussion, collaboration and co-creation.

This paper finds that central bank digital currency (CBDC) may not be widely accepted in the presence of a sizeable informal economy. Based on a two-sector monetary model, it shows an L-shaped relationship between the informal economy and CBDC. The CBDC can formalize the informal economy but this effect becomes marginally significant in countries with significantly large informal economies. In order to promote CBDC adoption and improve its effectiveness, tax incentives and positive CBDC interest rates can be useful tools. It further finds that adjustments to the CBDC interest rate can trigger a reallocation effect between formal and informal sectors, that improves the effectiveness of both conventional monetary policy and fiscal policy.

The prospect of central bank digital currency (CBDC) has raised concerns over its potential to cause structural (i.e. permanent) or cyclical (i.e. crisis-related, temporary) bank disintermediation. Moreover, negative interest rate policy is incompatible with the unconstrained supply of zero-remunerated CBDC. This column argues that a two-tier remuneration system for CBDC would be an efficient solution to these issues. It would allow households to access the CBDC as a means of payment with non-negative remuneration and would also make it possible to overcome the perceived dichotomy between retail and wholesale CBDC.

The Bank of England and HM Treasury have today announced the membership of the central bank digital currency (CBDC) Engagement and Technology Forums. The creation of these groups was announced in April 2021, alongside the CBDC Taskforce which coordinates the exploration of a potential UK CBDC. The Engagement Forum consists of senior stakeholders from industry, civil society and academia to gather strategic input on policy considerations and functional requirements pertaining to CBDC. The Forum will have an important role in helping the Bank and HM Treasury understand the practical challenges of designing, implementing and operating a CBDC.

The Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) announced the 15 finalists for the global competition to develop retail central bank digital currency (CBDC) solutions (Global CBDC Challenge). The finalists will progress to the Acceleration Phase before they pitch their solutions to a panel of judges and an international audience at this year's Singapore FinTech Festival. The Challenge attracted over 300 submissions from more than 50 countries. Participants were invited to address 12 problem statements relating to (i) CBDC instrument; (ii) CBDC distribution; and (iii) CBDC infrastructure; covering topics such as inclusivity, interoperability and programmability. The proposals from the finalists sought to address multiple problem statements through a variety of technology approaches including hardware wallets, digital identity and asset tokenisation solutions.