. Although Spanish is the most common second language
in the United States, students in a given school district might speak more than
100 different languages. These languages differ in their pronunciation patterns,
orthographic representations, and histories—and thus in the ease with which
students can transfer their prior knowledge about language to English.
Proficiency in the home language. Students who speak
the same language and are in the same grade may have very different levels of
academic language proficiency in their home language depending on such factors
as age and prior education. The development of a formal first language
facilitates learning in additional languages.
Generation. There are recognized differences in
language proficiency for students of different generations living in the United
States. First and second generations of English language learners differ in
significant ways, including the ability to use English at home. Because
protracted English language learners born outside the United States attempt to
straddle their old world and the new world in which they live, they experience
greater difficulty in developing English proficiency.
Number of languages spoken. Some students enroll in
schools having mastered more than one language already and thus have gained a
linguistic flexibility that can aid in learning additional languages. Others
have spoken one language at home for years, and their exposure to English is a
new learning experience.
Motivation. Students differ in their motivation to
learn English depending on their migration, immigration, or birthplace.
Immigrant families leave their homelands for a variety of reasons—political and
economic are perhaps the most common. Many of our students have left loved ones
behind, along with a familiar and cherished way of life. Some even hope to
return when a war is ended or when the family has enough money to better their
life in their home country. These students may not feel a great need to become
proficient in a language they don't intend to use for very long.
Poverty. Living in poverty and experiencing food
insecurity have a profound impact on learning in general and language learning
in particular. Simply said, when students' basic needs are met, they are more
likely to excel in school.
Personality. Some students are naturally outgoing and
verbal; others are shy or prefer more independent activities. Some are risk
takers who are not afraid to make mistakes; others want their utterances to be
perfect. These differences in personality can lead to differences in the rate at
which students gain proficiency in listening and speaking or reading and
writing.
Roland O'Daniel on 18 Apr 12What mathematical competencies must a teacher have to teach the subject well? This has proven difficult to investigate (1). A current view is that teachers' knowledge of mathematics "remains inert in the classroom unless accompanied by a rich repertoire of mathematical knowledge and skills relating directly to the curriculum, instruction, and student learning" (2). Unfortunately, there is no consensus on which "knowledge and skills" might activate teachers' inert knowledge. Two perspectives prevail, neither with a research base that enables strong claims about practice. The majority of current studies focus on explicit knowledge of curriculum content and instructional strategies. Such knowledge might be assessed directly through observation, interview, or written test (2), with a parallel research emphasis on the formal contents of teacher education programs [e.g., (3)]. A second school of thought, presented here, is that the most important competencies tend to be tacit, like skills involved in playing concert piano, learned but not necessarily available to consciousness.
