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A variety of expression vectors (e.g., Escherichia coli, Pichia pastoris and DNA) have been used to express Pvs25 protein which has been administered alone or in combination with adjuvants

To date these studies suggest that the recombinant protein currently requires both not only linear, but conformation dependent epitopes, and a strong adjuvant to induce transmission-blocking antibodies.

Intranasal and intramuscular immunization with Baculovirus Dual Expression System-based Pvs25 vaccine substantially blocks Plasmodium vivax transmission

Recently, we have developed a new vaccine vector system based on the baculovirus Autographa californica nucleopolyhedrosis virus (AcNPV) termed the “Baculovirus Dual Expression System”, which drives expression of vaccine candidate antigens by a dual promoter that consists of tandemly arranged baculovirus-derived polyhedrin and mammalian-derived CMV promoters. It has been shown that AcNPV, an enveloped double-stranded DNA virus that naturally infects insects, possesses strong adjuvant properties that can activate dendritic cell-mediated innate immunity

Mucosal vaccines have several attractive features compared with parenteral vaccines (e.g., safety, cost-effectiveness and ease of administration), but studies on their use have been limited almost exclusively to protection against mucosally transmitted pathogens. We provide evidence that i.n. immunization is a feasible alternative for preventing malaria, which is transmitted through non-mucosal routes

These results are consistent with our previous work showing that intranasal immunization with the baculovirus-based vaccine induced strong systemic humoral immune responses with high titres of antigen-specific antibodies and conferred complete protection against malaria blood-stage challenge

which can induce immunological memory against heterologous antigens in a rodent model; however, it is precluded from clinical use due to its enterotoxicity and potential hazardous effects on olfactory nerves [22]. In contrast, a baculovirus-based delivery system may offer an attractive immunization method, as AcNPV exhibits low cytotoxicity and is incapable of replication in mammalian cells

The data described here adds to previously presented data showing the significant potential of the baculovirus dual expression system against the blood stages of the parasite

but also demonstrates clearly its ability to induce antibodies against the ookinete surface protein Pvs25, and to elicit a transmission-blocking immune response against the P. vivax isolates from endemic areas, and a transgenic rodent malaria parasite model in preliminary studies.

One was SMFA on peripheral blood from P. vivax infected patients.

Dr. June knew that a drug could lower IL-6

tocilizumab

the altered T-cells persist in the bloodstream

The researchers are not entirely sure why the treatment works, or why it sometimes fails.

It is not clear whether a patient’s body needs the altered T-cells forever. The cells do have a drawback: they destroy healthy B-cells as well as cancerous ones, leaving patients vulnerable to certain types of infections, so Emma and the other patients need regular treatments with immune globulins to prevent illness.