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DRIVER-TREATMENT-WATER-INFRASTRUCTURE-CHEMISTRY-CHLORAMINE One new option that communities with ammonia problems have is biological filtration. This is a safe, chemical-free, method of removing ammonia. In a biological filtration facility, one of the stages of filtration is to pass the water through a special filter that is full of nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria take in the ammonia and some oxygen and perform a bio-oxidation reaction. They oxidize the ammonia into nitrite NH3 + O2 -> NO2- + 3H+ Then further oxidize that into nitrate, NO2- + H2O -> NO3- + 2H+. The bacteria gain energy from these reactions and are specialized to do them very efficiently. This process is part of the natural nitrogen cycle and does not produce any harmful byproducts. The nitrate that is produced by this process can easily be removed from the water by the reverse osmosis membrane in the final stage of the filtration process. The reaction between chlorine and ammonia can be written as NH3 +HOCl -> NH2Cl + H2O. In this chemical equation, NH3 is ammonia and HOCl is hypochlorous acid which is formed when the chlorine is first dissolved in the water. The primary result of this chemical reaction is NH2Cl, a chemical known as chloramine. Chloramine is a disinfectant like chlorine, it is a weaker disinfectant than chlorine but it lasts much longer in water. The chlorine concentration in water can gradually decrease as the chlorine evaporates out but chloramine does not do this. This makes it useful for making sure water stays disinfected throughout drinking water distribution systems. In areas where there is no, or very little, ammonia in the raw water treatment facilities might still want to use chloramine for this purpose. After chlorinating (disinfecting) the water, as the last step in the treatment process, they add ammonia and more chlorine to the water so that they react and create chloramine.

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"Developments That May Impact the Ability to Effect an Attack Using a Synthetic Biology-Enabled Weapon"

"Excess release of phosphorus is the main culprit for the eutrophication of freshwater and marine ecosystems [1]. Phosphorus is a nonrenewable and irreplaceable element for plant growth, and its role is crucial in agricultural production [2]. The accelerated growth in food demand has also increased the demand for phosphate fertilizers, which has placed stress on phosphate rock sources and is exhausting existing deposits [3]. The phosphate mining industry is also facing serious challenges regarding water availability for the mining process and a decrease in the quality of phosphate rocks"