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Henry II | king of France | Britannica.com - 0 views

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Henry II France 1559

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a vigorous suppressor of Protestants within his kingdom
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Henry was sent with his brother Francis, the dauphin, as a hostage to Spain in 1526
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The Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis was to be cemented by the marriages of Henry’s daughter Elizabeth and his sister Margaret to Philip II of Spain and to Emmanuel Philibert of Savoy, respectively
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A bigoted Roman Catholic, Henry was rigorous in the repression of Protestantism, which was approaching the zenith of its power in France.
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In foreign affairs Henry continued his father’s warfare against the Holy Roman emperor Charles V
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He left four sons by his marriage to Catherine de Médicis: the future kings Francis II, Charles IX, and Henry III and François
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Claude, who married Charles III the Great, Duke of Lorraine
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Margaret, who married Henry of Navarre (the future Henry IV)
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Valois Dynasty | French dynasty | Britannica.com - 0 views

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Valois Dynasty French Kings 1589

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Valois Dynasty, the royal house of France from 1328 to 1589
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begun under their predecessors, the Capetian dynasty
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The House of Valois was a branch of the Capetian family, for it was descended from Charles of Valois, whose Capetian father, King Philip III, awarded him the county of Valois in 1285
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The house subsequently had three lines
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(1) the direct line, beginning with Philip VI, which reigned from 1328 to 1498; (2) the Valois-Orléans branch
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the Valois-Angoulême branch, beginning with Francis I
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and was succeeded by the Bourbon dynasty, another branch of the Capetians
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The early kings of the Valois dynasty were occupied primarily with fighting the Hundred Years’ War (1337–1453)
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The Valois kings gradually increased their authority at the expense of the privileges of the feudal lords. The crown’s exclusive right to levy taxes and to wage war was established
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the ultimately unsuccessful Italian wars of the late 15th and early 16th centuries. These wars marked the start of Valois rivalry with the Habsburgs (ruling house of the Holy Roman Empire)
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The Wars of Religion (1562–98) weakened the power of the last Valois kings
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How inbreeding killed off a line of kings - Not Exactly Rocket Science - 0 views

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End of Spanish Hapsburg Line

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On November 1st, 1700, an entire dynasty of kings came to a crashing end with the death of Charles II of Spain. Charles had neither a pleasant life nor a successful reign. He was physically disabled, mentally retarded and disfigured.
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no heirs
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Charles II was the final king of the Spanish Habsburg dynasty (see family tree), part of a house that ruled over much of Europe for centuries and which took Spain to the height of its international power
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Historians have often speculated that this inbreeding was the dynasty’s downfall and contributed to Charles II’s numerous health problems
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Alvarez found that the first Spanish Habsburg king, Philip I, had a relatively low F-value of 0.025. But after just five generations, his descendant Charles II had an F-value of 0.254, more than ten times that of his great-great-great-grandfather
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The growing degree of inbreeding in the family meant that fewer and fewer children made it to adulthood
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The Battle of Almanza | History Today - 0 views

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Battle Spain France Bourbons Allied Army War of Spanish Succession

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son of the future James II of England
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the War of the Spanish Succession, which began with a dispute between Louis XIV and the Austrian Habsburgs over the vacant Spanish throne
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The war drew in the English, the Dutch and the Portuguese on the Austrian side against the French, who in Spain were supported by Castile, but opposed by the Catalans
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There was fighting in Germany, Italy, Spain and the Netherlands, and the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy won brilliant victories for the allies, including Blenheim in 1704
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The decisive battle occurred on Easter Monday in 1707 when the allied army arrived at the walled town of Almanza, south-west of Valencia, and found Berwick waiting for them
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The allied army had British, Portuguese, Dutch and Huguenot French contingents
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the disappearance of the Portuguese cavalry left the British, Dutch and Huguenot infantry’s flank completely exposed and they were overwhelmingly defeated
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The victory was a major factor in securing control of Spain for the Bourbons
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General Franco and the Spanish Succession | History Today - 0 views

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1957 Spanish Succession Alfonso Franco Juan Carlos

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The days of Bourbon rule in Spain seemed to be at an end when King Alfonso XIII left the country in 1931
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abdicating in favour of his third son Don Juan, Count of Barcelona
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The Civil War of 1936-39 left Spain a fascist dictatorship run by General Franco as El Caudillo (the Leader)
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he enjoyed being dictator and had no intention of giving way to any monarch
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In the following year Spain was officially proclaimed a monarchy with Franco as head of state and the power to choose his successor
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the monarchy would be restored on General Franco’s death or retirement, but without saying who the monarch would be
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The destinies of Spain will be directed,’ the parliament was told, ‘by a monarchy which is neither liberal nor absolute, but traditional, popular and Catholic
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You’ve got all three Bourbons in front of you,’ she told Franco. ‘Decide!’ The general made no reply, but early in the following year Juan Carlos made it clear that in his opinion, when the time came, the monarchy would be ‘installed’ rather than ‘restored’
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When Franco died in Madrid in 1975 at the age of eighty-two, Juan Carlos was duly installed as King of Spain
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Poland's Fugitive King | History Today - 0 views

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Poland France Henry II Election

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One of the most extraordinary events of the 16th century was the election in 1573 of a French prince to the throne of Poland. The prince was Henri, the third son of Henry II of France.
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Catherine’s two eldest sons, François and Charles, were kings of France successively. Henri also succeeded to that throne in 1574. Their sister, Marguerite, became queen of Navarre by marrying the future Henri IV of France in 1572
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The Polish throne, unusually, was elective. Since 1386 the election had been in practice limited to members of the Jagiellon dynasty, but now, for the first time, it was to be free. Five candidates offered themselves including John III of Sweden, Ivan IV, Tsar of Muscovy, the Archduke Ernest, son of the Emperor Maximilian II, and Henri, Duke of Anjou
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Henri seemed set to win the election when news of the massacre in Paris reached Poland. Overnight the atmosphere changed: lurid depictions of cruelty began to circulate
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We want Henri of Valois to be our king!
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The former provided for a Diet every two years, forbade the king to name his successor or to marry without its consent, limited his power over legislation and bound him to accept a permanent council of 16 senators. To safeguard religious toleration, the terms of the Confederation of Warsaw of 1573 were included in the Henrician Articles, together with a clause releasing the king’s subjects of their obligation of obedience if he broke the contract
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little more than a figurehead
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For Poland was far from backward culturally. A strong humanistic tradition had developed there in the 15th century
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You will be powerless to do evil’, he said, ‘but all powerful to do good.
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This meeting revealed sharp differences among the Poles over religious toleration
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Two conditions were particularly repugnant to Henri: the obligation to hand over his private fortune to the Polish state and that which released his subjects from their obedience if he should break any condition attached to his election
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Henri sat as king of Poland alongside his brother, Charles IX, king of France
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Poland as such did not interest him; he was only going there to please his mother.
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German Protestants had been outraged by the massacre of St Bartholomew’s Day. Yet Henri was received courteously
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Protestant members of the Diet feared that, once crowned, he would expel all non-Catholics from Poland
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He sentenced Zborowski to banishment, thereby unleashing a furious reaction. Considered too harsh by the Zborowskis and too light by the Wapowskis, the sentence ignited bitter criticism of Henri
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He was accused of breaking his oath
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By now Henri was heartily tired of Poland
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On June 14th, 1574, however, news of Charles IX’s death reached Henri. Keeping it to himself, he declined to take part in a tournament that evening and instead consulted four of his French councillors as to what action to take. They were equally divided: some thought a clandestine departure would do lasting damage to Henri’s reputation, while others argued that he needed to return to France urgently
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Having decided to go, Henri asked two of his French courtiers to find out how to leave Cracow unnoticed and to prepare horses and guides. For it was essential that the Poles should not suspect that he was about to ditch them. If they tried to retain him he might lose the throne of France, which he valued far more than that of Poland. He was being pressed by his mother to return without delay. His brother Alençon remained a threat. On June 15th Henri deceitfully informed the Senate that he was not planning to leave for the time being and summoned a meeting of the Diet for September
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In Cracow Henri’s flight was discovered. Tenczynski and a large troop of horsemen set off in pursuit. On reaching the river the chamberlain spied Henri on the far bank: ‘Your Majesty’, he cried, ‘why are you fleeing?’ He then joined Henri at Ples, a small Austrian town. ‘My friend’, explained the king, ‘while I am taking up the succession given to me by God, I am not renouncing that which He has given me by election, for my shoulders are strong enough to support both crowns
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The king gave him a valuable diamond instead. Tenczynski then returned to Cracow, leaving Henri and his company to continue their journey
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Discontent and confusion erupted in Poland after Henri’s flight.
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the nobles turned instead to Stephen Bathory, Prince of Transylvania. He was acclaimed by a Diet on January 18th, 1576 and, soon afterwards, accepted the conditions laid down by the Polish nobles. He was crowned in Cracow on April 29th and married Princess Anna the next day
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Poles felt let down. No king of theirs had ever given up his crown voluntarily. A popular saying expressed their resentment: King Henri has done the Poles a bad turn: elected at night, he came at night, and, like a traitor, he fled at night
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Charles III of Spain: an Enlightened Despot, Part II | History Today - 0 views

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Charles 16-18THC Spain Political Reforms

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Hercules for his brave struggle with the hydra of the Inquisition
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With him in charge of the government, Charles was able to get into his stride as an enlightened despot: schools were founded to fill the void left by the expulsion of the Jesuits; the currency was reformed; a census was taken; and Madrid became, for the first time, a city worthy of Europe
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He did not like it, but he believed that the Spaniards wanted it, and the events of 1766 had taught him the danger of offending national prejudices
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During Aranda’s administration, an ambitious project was adopted for colonizing a depopulated area in the South of Spain, the Sierra Morena, with colonists from abroad, mostly from Germany
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Charles certainly tried to reduce the authority and privilege of the Church, but he was pious and his intervention was moderate.
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It was not merely what the Inquisition did, but what it deterred men from doing
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it is an absolute principle always to do what has been done the day before and to do it in absolutely the same way
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Charles issued a decree declaring officially that the trades of tanner, blacksmith, tailor and shoemaker did not degrade the person exercising them, or his family. To carry the point further, he worked from time to time with his hands in his own factories, and he was proud of having made the boots and main items of a soldier’s equipment
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It is difficult to exaggerate the darkness of the intellectual climate in which Charles and the men of the enlightenment had to work
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It is impossible to understand Charles’ reign or the achievement of the men of the enlightenment in Spain without keeping constantly in mind how widespread and entrenched were the forces of conservatism, intolerance and privilege, and how few were the men who believed that the only hope for the country lay in the introduction of new ideas—in the acceptance of reason rather than tradition as the lode-star of human activity
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has never produced a speculative scientist of great renown
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Few people here discover any love for the sciences. Books are little read
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Much was done to reform the universities
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There was a revulsion against war and a condemnation of militarism. ‘This peninsula,’ wrote Cadalso, ‘has not enjoyed anything that can be called peace for nearly 2,000 years. It is a marvel that there is any grass in the fields or water in the fountains
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In 1771 he created a new order that opened the doors of the nobility to the bourgeoisie
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Along with the embourgeoisement of the Spanish central government went a fresh broom in local affairs that swept away many of the old hereditary offices, opened them up to anyone who was qualified regardless of birth, and even introduced elections for certain posts
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He also encountered the deep-seated conservatism of the people who feared the slightest change
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He established royal factories for clocks and porcelain; infant industries were protected, and some of the restrictive practices of the enormously powerful guilds were curtailed
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The first national bank of Spain was founded, and economic societies were established in many parts of the country to spread technical knowledge
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Trade with the colonies was encouraged; new highways were built
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Charles was also a considerable patron of the arts and sciences. He founded an astronomical observatory and an immense hospital.
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Napoleon remarked to his brother, Joseph, when he gave him the crown of Spain
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But Charles’s struggle for internal reform was partly stultified by his failure to spare the country the cost of further war. In 1775 an expedition was undertaken against Algiers which failed ignominiously
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The 1733 family Compact between the Kings of France and Spain contained an article committing His Most Christian Majesty to do everything, if necessary using force, to compel the British to restore Gibraltar to Spain
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It bound Madrid to Paris and prevented Spain from making common cause with Britain
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the main source of five Anglo-Spanish wars in seventy-five years and was the prime objective for which Spain joined France in the War of American Independence
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Spain’s participation in the war led at first to a joint French-Spanish plan to invade England, but this soon had to be abandoned and, after the failure of secret peace talks, Spanish activity came to be concentrated more and more upon the capture of the Rock
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as if all the ingenuity of Europe was combined against the Rock
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From all over France and Spain spectators flocked to see the 7,000 British defenders under General George Elliot defeated by the 40,000 men under the command of the renowned Spanish general
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The battle was over, and with it Spain’s chance of recovering the Rock by force
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But George III was in favour of giving it up since he was convinced that ‘this proud fortress’, to use his own words, would be ‘the source at least of a constant lurking enmity between England and Spain’
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He so arranged things that the British offer never reached the court of Madrid
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The French Minister did not want to make the sacrifice of territory necessary to accomplish the exchange; nor did he wish to weaken the ties that bound the Bourbon powers by removing the greatest single obstacle to a reconciliation between Spain and England
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In the light of history, it looks as if a golden opportunity was missed for resolving the problem. Spain recovered Minorca and acquired the whole of Florida. But the source of enmity continued to lurk
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The war had brought serious consequences for Spain’s internal economy. But it had also not been without its effect on the problems of the Spanish-American colonies which now had a Republic on their doorstep
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the movement for separation. The development of trade led to more prosperity among many of the creoles and, hence, to in-dependent-mindedness
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the propagation of the ideas of the enlightenment
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He insisted on every detail of every new idea being thrashed out in one or other of the various councils of state
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like his great-grandfather, Louis XIV, that punctuality is the courtesy of kings
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He was not out for himself, but for the welfare and happiness of his subjects
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There could be no attenuation of his absolute authority. It was government for the people, certainly, but without the people
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If the hopes were not entirely fulfilled and if Spain before long slipped backwards again into the darkness from which Charles had tried to lift her, the causes were hardly his responsibility.
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The French Revolution spread such fears amongst the reforming rulers of Spain that they panicked and suspended all progress
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Charles simply did not reign long enough to establish for all time the climate of change he had introduced
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Charles III of Spain: an Enlightened Despot, Part I | History Today - 0 views

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Charles-III Spain History

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there is one man who stands out from the general level of mediocrity, a King who tried with some success to arrest the decadence—Charles III, King of Spain, 1759-1788
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This zeal for the general welfare of his people brought him into rough conflict with the two main powers in the land; the nobility and the clergy
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Philip had to withdraw his abdication; but the bouts of insanity continued, and Isabella Farnese became de facto ruler of the country
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the Two Sicilies were happier under Charles than they had been for many a long century
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he reversed his predecessor’s policy of neutrality and involved Spain in two expensive wars against Britain, for which she was ill-prepared; and he committed the country’s pride and strength to a spectacularly unsuccessful attempt to recover Gibraltar
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Born in Madrid in 1716, the son of Spain’s first Bourbon King, Philip V, and of his second wife, Isabella Farnese, he enjoyed in some respects a happy and normal childhood
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to bend the foreign policy of Spain solely for the purpose of providing kingdoms for her offspring
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I would like to deserve to be called Charles the Wise
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Philip V inherited the melancholy, the longing for seclusion that at times overcame all reason
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the King had become so deranged that he had to abdicate in favour of Louis
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In October 1731 he set off for Italy to take over the Duchies of Parma and Piacenza, and to garrison Tuscany, an inheritance arranged for him by Isabella
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the Austrians had to withdraw and Naples was ensured a separate existence under the Bourbons. Charles returned to his regime of hunting, building and reform.
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Taking advantage of Austria’s preoccupations elsewhere in the war of the Polish Succession, Isabella decided to attack in Italy. The aim was to recover for Spain the provinces of the Two Sicilies which had been Spanish for two centuries until 1713 when they had been handed over to Austria under the Treaty of Utrecht. Spain declared war on Austria in December 1733, and Charles was made titular commander-in-chief of the 30,000 Spanish troops that landed at Leghorn
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Austria withdrew without a fight and in 1734 Charles became King of the Two Sicilies, a territory now independent for the first time. But as part of the general settlement he had to give up his rights in the Duchies; and a commitment was made, which for him cast a shadow before, that the crowns of Spain and of the Two Sicilies would never be united
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As in Spain later, Charles challenged and reduced the powers and privileges of the aristocracy and clergy. He reformed the archaic legal and economic systems. His aim was ‘to sweep away feudalism’,
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Naples before him had been without industry or trade
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Naples rose and flourished, a European capital of the arts
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he astounded the aristocracy of Madrid by the purity of his life
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His mother was once again meddling in Italian affairs, trying this time to exploit Vienna’s preoccupation with the war of the Austrian Succession to recover the central Italian duchies for Philip, her second surviving son. Charles was forced to send troops north to support his brother’s Spaniards who had landed under the Duke of Montemar
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he nourished a grievance against Britain
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he helped to defeat the Austrian troops at Velletri. He showed courage and leadership in the battle, having survived an attempt at capture
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identify government not only with order and tradition, but with reform, and thereby helped to avert revolution.
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This routine was shattered in 1759 by the death of his childless half-brother Ferdinand VI who had been King of Spain since 1746; a King who, true to family tradition, had gone mad
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For months the kingdom of Spain languished under this rule
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From the moment of his arrival in Madrid in December 1759, Charles showed that he was not prepared to follow in Ferdinand’s easy-going footsteps. Government was a serious business, and would be conducted by himself in the interests of the people
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Italian influence came in with him like a tidal wave, sweeping over muph of Spanish life
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But it was in administrative reform that the sharpest note of change was stock. The economy of the country was sagging, yet Charles badly needed more money—among other things to pay off his father’s debts, and to strengthen the almost non-existent defences of Spain and the Indies. A flow of decrees poured forth regulating commerce and providing for the collection of revenue.
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cleaning as was done was carried out by private enterprise, by troops of sweepers
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Charles set about a radical clean-up
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Since reaching Madrid, Charles had been under pressure from both sides to join in the war between Britain and Prussia on the one hand, and France and Austria on the other, which had broken out in 1756
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Ferdinand VI had managed to stay neutral and Maria Amalia had been a strong influence for peace, but after her death, Charles changed his policy
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life-long grudge against the British for having taken Gibraltar from his father—a feeling compounded by Commodore Martin’s insult
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if he joined the French alliance, might help him to recover Minorca and Gibraltar. So in August 1761 he agreed to the Family Compact with Louis XV which brought him into war against Britain
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Spain was heavily defeated by the British fleet which captured Havana and Manila
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British power had greatly increased, partly at the expense of Spain
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The country was exhausted, and there was much resentment against the French. Charles personally would have liked to have shaken himself out of the family straight-jacket
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But Louis XV dismissed Choiseul and wrote to Charles in his own hand: ‘My minister would have war, but I will not
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Charles had no alternative but to capitulate to the British
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the Madrid mutiny of 1766
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The favour he had shown early on towards the bourgeoisie, his concern for the poor, and the reforming zeal of his Ministers had all helped to generate distrust amongst the nobility and clergy
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the discontent did not stop with the rich
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There was widespread public unrest caused by the effects of the war, prolonged drought and high prices. Far from assuaging this, Charles had aggravated it, particularly in Madrid
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public indignation
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Squillace was the main target of public wrath
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Within a week the King capitulated and agreed to everything
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the Jesuits the scapegoat for the mutiny. In 1767 they were expelled from Spain with ruthless efficiency
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Hero or Tyrant? Henry III, King of France | History Today - 0 views

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Monarch Henry III France

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assassinated by one of his own subjects, Henry’s legacy has often been derided
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The last of the Valois monarchs to take the throne, Henry III seemed to embody the worst traits of a dynasty in decline, in sharp contrast to his celebrated Bourbon successors
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He is now portrayed as an intelligent and cultured individual who sought (but failed) to bring about much-needed financial and judicial reform in his kingdom
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elected king of Poland
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one of early modern Europe’s most notorious and intriguing monarchs
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Philip I Crowned King of France | History Today - 0 views

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Philip King France Political Medieval

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The name Philip was Greek and uncommon in the Western Europe of the 11th century
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He was only seven when his father Henry I had him crowned at Rheims as co-king
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Philip’s mother and Count Baldwin V of Flanders acted as his regents
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Philip won the support of many of the French bishops, but he got a bad press from the ecclesiastical chroniclers of the day.
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Pope Urban II excommunicated Philip in 1095 and the anathema was renewed by his successor Paschal II
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from 1097 his formidable son took charge
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He thought himself not a great enough monarch to rest there
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The End of the Holy Roman Empire | History Today - 0 views

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Holy Roman Empire End Francis

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it had survived for more than a thousand years since the coronation of Charlemagne in the year 800
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it was finally destroyed by Napoleon and the French
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The process began when the German territories on the west bank of the Rhine were annexed to France in 1801
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the Hapsburg Emperor, Francis II, had no choice but to accept after the French victories
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German rulers who lost territory west of the Rhine to be compensated elsewhere in the empire at the expense of the ecclesiastical states
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Napoleon to preside over a reorganisation
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the effect was to cut the number of the imperial states from more than 300 to fewer than 100 and severely diminish the authority of the Hapsburgs
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The larger German states were not at all unhappy to swallow their smaller neighbours. Both Austria and Prussia acquired some extra territory in the reorganization of 1803
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Napoleon made sure that the main gains went to states like Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden, which were not big enough to pose any threat to France
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Napoleon smashed the Austrian and Russian armies in battle at Austerlitz
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Sixteen German states joined the Confederation, which stretched from the Elbe to the Alps. It was a French vassal state and Napoleon announced that the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation no longer existed.
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the 6th the Emperor Francis bowed to the inevitable, renounced the imperial crown which his forebears had worn in virtually unbroken succession for almost four centuries since Albert II in 1438
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The insatiable Bonaparte went on to create a new kingdom of Westphalia for his brother Jerome and coax or bully all the German states except Austria and Prussia to join the Confederation
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Death of the Emperor Ferdinand | History Today - 0 views

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Ferdinand-III Holy-Roman-Empire Leopold

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Ferdinand III’s twenty years as Holy Roman Emperor fell between the reigns of two exceptionally dominating and effective emperors, his father, Ferdinand II, and his son, Leopold I
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the French and the Swedes now saw an opportunity to exclude the Habsburg dynasty from the imperial succession
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In fact he survived until 1705 and the age of sixty-four
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and made Austria a great European power
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Charles V: Europe's Last Emperor? | History Today - 0 views

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Belgium Charles-V

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encapsulating the complexity of his inheritance
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Ghent
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he was the intellectual and moral superior to his rival rulers Henry and Francois
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the centre of a genealogical network which covered half Europe
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Through his mother he would inherit Spain and the bloodstained kingdom of Naples as well
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through his father he would become one of the great magnates of France as Duke of Burgundy
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Clement personally crowned Charles, the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by a pope
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Irony often attended Charles
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February 24th, 1500
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dividing it between his brother Ferdinand and his son, Philip II of Spain
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abdicate in 1556
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Charles died in the monastery in 1558
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The city had a close relationship with England
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it became part of Burgundy
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Burgundy itself was as much an idea as a place; sometimes expanding as far south as Italy, sometimes pushing north, swallowing the towns of Flanders and northern France
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the last truly effective emperor in Europe
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