Modeling -- involves an expert's carrying out a task so that student can
observe and build a conceptual model of the processes that are required
to accomplish the task. For example, a teacher might model the reading
process by reading aloud in one voice, while verbalizing her thought processes
(summarize what she just read, what she thinks might happen next) in another
voice.
Coaching - consists of observing students while they carry out a task and
offering hints, feedback, modeling, reminders, etc.
Articulation - includes any method of getting students to articulate their
knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving processes.
Reflection - enables students to compare their own problem-solving processes
with those of an expert or another student.
Exploration - involves pushing students into a mode of problem solving
on their own. Forcing them to do exploration is critical, if they are to
learn how to frame questions or problems that are interesting and that
they can solve (Collins, Brown, Newman, 1989, 481-482).
