If you give girls and boys language tasks, most girls will process the information in the same way (in a specialized language area)
help them with word storage and retrieval
But for boys, sensitivity to the modality of how words are presented means that an extra steps need to be taken to match words that are picked up by listening and words that are read on the printed page. No wonder dyslexia is much more common in boys - the separate system means that the sight and sound of words are learned as distinct processes.
As a result, verbal competence may be strong in one domain (oral speech for instance), but be weak in another (reading).
because boys require two areas and a matching of visual-auditory inputs, impairment in one system may cause the whole language coordination process to fail.
The visual-auditory gap may also be why some boys may need to read word-for-word outloud or to themselves (i.e. not silently read) in order to fully comprehend or remember the story.
Some careful consideration needs to made of instructional implications for boys given some of these new discoveries. Learning by listening and learning by reading are not synonymous; route-congruent factors(listening - oral presentation, reading - written response) may need to be considered when a learning gap or frank underachievement is seen, and an insistence on the availability of auditory-visual supports (reading along with books-on-tape, detailed handouts for lecture courses) should be a requirement of every classroom.
Taylor & Francis Online :: Spoken language and arm gestures are controlled by the same motor control system - The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology - Volume 61, Issue 6
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The ASD performed worse than the typically developing group across the entire grammaticality judgment task. However, the authors noted that the groups did NOT differ when the sentences were short or medium length. That is, the apparent relative weaker performance among the ASD group was mostly during long sentences. In addition, these group differences were more pronounced when the error was located at the end of long sentences. This indicates that the group differences may be due to difficulty in working memory and attention among the autism group.
However, it is unlikely that these findings are only attributable to working memory problems. Specifically, the ASD groups showed impaired performance only to some type grammatical errors but not others. That is, the ASD group had difficulty identifying omissions and substitution errors, but did not show difficulty identifying order or insertion errors. This suggests that attention and working memory difficulties interact with some unique deficits in grammaticality judgment.
The procedure is controversial, since a majority of peer reviewPeer reviewPeer review is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work, research, or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given field, who are qualified and able to perform impartial review...ed scientific studies conclude that the typed language output attributed to the clients is directed or systematically determined by the therapists who provide facilitated assistance. Some peer-reviewed scientific studies have indicated instances of valid FC, and some FC users have reportedly gone on to type independently.
Harvard UniversityHarvard UniversityHarvard University is a private university located in Cambridge, Massachusetts and a member of the Ivy League. Founded in 1636 by the colonial Massachusetts legislature, Harvard is the oldest institution of higher learning in the United States and currently comprises ten separate academic units... psychologist Daniel WegnerDaniel WegnerDaniel M. Wegner is an American social psychologist. He is a professor of psychology at Harvard University and a fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. He is known for his work on mental control and conscious will, and for originating the study of transactive memory and... has argued that facilitated communication is a striking example of the ideomotor effectIdeomotor effectThe ideomotor effect is a psychological phenomenon wherein a subject makes motions unconsciously. As in reflexive responses to pain, the body sometimes reacts reflexively to ideas alone without the person consciously deciding to take action..., the well-known phenomenon whereby individuals' expectations exert unconscious influence over their motor actions. Even FC users and proponents do acknowledge the possibility of facilitators at times "guiding" users, consciously or unconsciously. Other theorists (Donnellan and Leary, 1995) argue that autism is in significant part characterized by dyspraxia (a movement disorder), and that there exists a synchronistic "dance" to communication in all mammalian social interaction which accounts for the mixed results in validation studies.
Stephen von Tetzchner, the author of another leading textbook on Augmentative and Alternative CommunicationAugmentative and alternative communicationAugmentative and alternative communication is communication for those with impairments or restrictions on the production or comprehension of spoken or written language.-Definition :... has done theoretical research about facilitated communication. In his opinion "The existing evidence clearly demonstrates that facilitating techniques usually led to automatic writingAutomatic writingAutomatic writing is the process or production of writing material that does not come from the conscious thoughts of the writer. Practitioners say that the writer's hand forms the message, with the person being unaware of what will be written...., displaying the thoughts and the attitudes of the facilitators."
Mark Mostert (2001) says: "Previous reviews of Facilitated Communication (FC) studies have clearly established that proponents' claims are largely unsubstantiated and that using FC as an intervention for communicatively impaired or noncommunicative individuals is not recommended."
In March 2007, Scott Lilienfeld included facilitated communication on a list of treatments that have the potential to cause harm in clients, published in the APSAssociation for Psychological ScienceThe Association for Psychological Science , previously the American Psychological Society, is a non-profit organization whose mission is to promote, protect, and advance the interests of scientifically oriented psychology in research, application, teaching, and the improvement of human welfare... journal Perspectives on Psychological Science.
The phrase "independent typing" is defined by supporters of FC as "typing without physical support", i.e., without being touched by another person. Skeptics of FC do not agree that this definition of independence suffices because of the possibility of influence by the facilitator. For example, Sue RubinSue RubinSue Rubin is a functionally non-verbal published autistic author who was the subject of the Oscar-nominated documentary Autism Is A World in which she communicated via the controversial communication technique of facilitated communication...., an FC user featured in the autobiographical documentary Autism Is A World, reportedly types without anyone touching her; however, she reports that she requires a facilitator to hold the keyboard and offer other assistance.
The procedure is controversial, since a majority of peer reviewed scientific studies conclude that the typed language output attributed to the clients is directed or systematically determined by the therapists who provide facilitated assistance. Some peer-reviewed scientific studies have indicated instances of valid FC, and some FC users have reportedly gone on to type independently.
In recent years, Iacoboni has shown that mirror neurons may be an important element of social cognition and that defects in the mirror neuron system may underlie a variety of mental disorders, such as autism.
Mirror neurons are the only brain cells we know of that seem specialized to code the actions of other people and also our own actions. They are obviously essential brain cells for social interactions. Without them, we would likely be blind to the actions, intentions and emotions of other people.
The way mirror neurons likely let us understand others is by providing some kind of inner imitation of the actions of other people, which in turn leads us to “simulate” the intentions and emotions associated with those actions. When I see you smiling, my mirror neurons for smiling fire up, too, initiating a cascade of neural activity that evokes the feeling we typically associate with a smile.
In 2006 your lab published a paper in Nature Neuroscience linking a mirror neuron dysfunction to autism. How might reduced mirror neuron activity explain the symptoms of autism?
Reduced mirror neuron activity obviously weakens the ability of these patients to experience immediately and effortlessly what other people are experiencing, thus making social interactions particularly difficult for these patients. Patients with autism have also often motor problems and language problems. It turns out that a deficit in mirror neurons can in principle explain also these other major symptoms. The motor deficits in autism can be easily explained because mirror neurons are just special types of premotor neurons, brain cells essential for planning and selecting actions. It has been also hypothesized that mirror neurons may be important in language evolution and language acquisition.
Thus, a deficit in mirror neurons can in principle account for three major symptoms of autism, the social, motor and language problems.
There is convincing behavioral evidence linking media violence with imitative violence. Mirror neurons provide a plausible neurobiological mechanism that explains why being exposed to media violence leads to imitative violence.
I think there are two key points to keep in mind. The first one is the one we started with: mirror neurons are brain cells specialized for actions. They are obviously critical cells for social interactions but they can’t explain non-social cognition. The second point to keep in mind is that every brain cell and every neural system does not operate in a vacuum. Everything in the brain is interconnected, so that the activity of each cell reflects the dynamic interactions with other brain cells and other neural systems.
In recent years, Marco Iacoboni, a neuroscientist at the University of California at Los Angeles, has shown that mirror neurons may be an important element of social cognition and that defects in the mirror neuron system may underlie a variety of mental disorders, such as autism.
The study, published online today in the journal Pediatrics, examined an intervention called the Early Start Denver Model, which combines applied behavioral analysis (ABA) teaching methods with developmental 'relationship-based' approaches.
The five-year study took place at the University of Washington (UW) in Seattle and was led by Dawson, then a professor of psychology and director of the university's Autism Center, in partnership with Rogers. It involved therapy for 48 diverse, 18- to 30-month-old children with autism and no other health problems.
At the conclusion of the study, the IQs of the children in the intervention group had improved by an average of approximately 18 points, compared to a little more than four points in the comparison group. The intervention group also had a nearly 18-point improvement in receptive language (listening and understanding) compared to approximately 10 points in the comparison group. Seven of the children in the intervention group had enough improvement in overall skills to warrant a change in diagnosis from autism to the milder condition known as 'pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified,' or PDD-NOS. Only one child in the community-based intervention group had an improved diagnosis.
In this study, the intervention was provided in a toddler's natural environment (their home) and delivered by trained therapists and parents who received instruction and training as part of the model.
Parents are taught strategies for capturing their children's attention and promoting communication. By using these strategies throughout the day, the children were offered many opportunities to learn to interact with others.
A novel early intervention program for very young children with autism - some as young as 18 months - is effective for improving IQ, language ability, and social interaction, a comprehensive new study has found.
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Children with autism who received hyperbaric treatment at 1.3 atm and 24% oxygen for 40 hourly sessions had significant improvements in overall functioning, receptive language, social interaction, eye contact, and sensory/cognitive awareness compared to children who received slightly pressurized room air.
Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov NCT00335790
Hyperbaric treatment for children with autism: a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, controlled trial
Children with autism who received hyperbaric treatment at 1.3 atm and 24% oxygen for 40 hourly sessions had significant improvements in overall functioning, receptive language, social interaction, eye contact, and sensory/cognitive awareness compared to children who received slightly pressurized room air. Trial Registration: clinicaltrials.gov NCT00335790
Orangutans are very intelligent, but lack voice boxes and vocal cords, which can make communication difficult. Up until now, zoo keepers have been using sign language to communicate with them. Using the iPad gives the orangutans another form of communication with humans, provides them with mental stimulation, and also gives those who don’t know sign language a chance to interact with humans.
In a world that’s ever changing, routine and structure provide great comfort to a child on the autism spectrum. Define routines clearly.
Activities are successful when they’re broken into small steps.
Make sure children know what to do if they finish ahead of time. Typically, children with autism do not use free time productively; therefore strive to have as little downtime between activities as possible.
Remember to keep explanations simple and short about each picture or concentration will wane. Give written instructions instead of verbal whenever you can. Highlight or underline any text for emphasis.
People with autism like order and detail. They feel in control and secure when they know what to expect
Picture schedules are even more powerful because they help a student visualize the actions.
Make sure you have this schedule in a very visible place in your classroom and direct the students’ attention to it frequently, particularly a few minutes before you begin the next activity.
Written schedules are very effective for good readers. These can also be typed up and placed on a student’s desk.
4. Reduce distractions
Many people with autism find it difficult to filter out background noise and visual information. Children with autism pay attention to detail. Wall charts and posters can be very distracting.
Try and seat children away from windows and doors.
5. Use concrete language
Always keep your language simple and concrete. Get your point across in as few words as possible.
Avoid using idioms.
Give very clear choices and try not to leave choices open ended. You’re bound to get a better result by asking “Do you want to read or draw?” than by asking “What do you want to do now?”
6. It’s not personal
Children with autism are not rude. They simply don’t understand social rules or how they’re supposed to behave.
NEVER, ever, speak about a child on the autism spectrum as if they weren’t present
Despite the lack of reaction they sometimes present, hearing you speak about them in a negative way will crush their self esteem.
7. Transitions
Children on the autism spectrum feel secure when things are constant. Changing an activity provides a fear of the unknown. This elevates stress which produces anxiety
Reduce the stress of transitions by giving ample warning
Using schedules helps with transitions too as students have time to “psyche themselves up” for the changes ahead.
People can be slow when they are learning a new skill until they become proficient
Encourage your students to ask each other for help and information
Making decisions is equally important and this begins by teaching students to make a choice. Offer two choices.
When giving a directive or asking a question, make sure you allow for extra processing time before offering guidance. Self help skills are essential to learn
Never underestimate the power of consistency.
Avoid this temptation and make sure you allow ample time before you abandon an idea. Remember that consistency is a key component of success. If you’re teaching a student to control aggression, the same plan should be implemented in all settings, at school and at home.
9. Rewards before consequences
We all love being rewarded and people with autism are no different. Rewards and positive reinforcement are a wonderful way to increase desired behavior
If possible, let your students pick their own reward so they can anticipate receiving it.
There are many reward systems which include negative responses and typically, these do not work as well.
Focusing on negative aspects can often lead to poor results and a de-motivated student. When used correctly, rewards are very powerful and irresistible
Every reward should be showered in praise. Even though people on the spectrum might not respond typically when praised, they enjoy it just as much as you!
10. Teach with lists
Teaching with lists sets clear expectations. It defines a beginning, middle and an end.
People on the autism spectrum respond well to order and lists are no exception. Almost anything can be taught in a list format.
While typical people often think in very abstract format, people on the spectrum have a very organized way of thought. Finding ways to work within these parameters can escalate the learning curve.
11. Creative teaching
It helps to be creative when you’re teaching students with autism. People on the spectrum think out of the box and if you do too, you will get great results.
It may even be painful for the student... There are research about this issue.
By correcting every action a person does, you’re sending a message that they’re not good enough the way they are. When making a decision about what to correct, always ask yourself first, “Will correcting this action help this person lead a productive and happy life?”
Daniel Tammet has a remarkable mind. He's proficient in more than six languages, including Icelandic (which he mastered in one week), he memorized the number pi to 22, 514 decimal places and he literally sees numbers as vivid geometrical shapes. It's all part of being an autistic savant.
Prompts is a software application for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Designed especially for parents, special educators & therapists, iPrompts allows for the presentation of customized picture schedules, "social stories," countdown timers and choice offerings to those with developmental and language impairments. The visual supports packed into iPrompts are used to help get those with special needs through the day. Costs $75.
Facilitators who work closely with individuals with autism, as well as other
developmental disabilities (e.g., mental retardation, cerebral palsy, etc.)
report that individuals with little or no language are fully expressive about
life experiences, thoughts, feelings, choices, preferences, and decisions, when
allowed to communicate through facilitation.
Biklen and other
proponents of facilitated communication have been strongly opposed to objective,
empirical validity testing. They maintain that testing undermines the
individual's confidence, places him or her under pressure, and introduces
negativism that destroys the communicative exchange.
Rather, under the surface of autism is a person with full
cognitive faculties. Smith and Belcher (1993) indicate that much of this
suggests a basic unwillingness on the part of families, professionals, and
caregivers to accept the individuals with disabilities for what they are, thus
diminishing the value of the individual in a way that the disability itself
could not have.
Thompson (1993) describes facilitated communication as a classic example of
the self-fulfilling prophecy. The facilitator wants to believe that the person
with a severe cognitive and language disability is actually of normal to
superior intellectual ability. Parents especially want to believe that a way has
been found to finally unlock the door to their real son or daughter.
In short, people want facilitated communication to work.
Advocates of facilitated communication often respond to naysayers, "It
can't hurt to try it." Biklen agrees, "It is not harmful to teach
people to communicate through pointing." However, he qualifies his claim
with the caveat that "it can be harmful if the facilitator over interprets,
does not monitor the person's eyes, facilitates when the person is looking away,
is not sensitive to the possibility of guiding the person, and asks leading
rather than clarifying questions."
Some argue that "false communication" may distort
beliefs, understanding, and rehabilitative approaches to persons with autism and
other developmental disabilities.
Additionally, facilitated communication in the
past few years has been the source of many contested abuse allegations, usually
allegedly reported by an individual with very limited unassisted communication
skills against a family caregiver or caregivers.
There are at
least 50 legal cases in the U.S. involving allegations of sexual abuse produced
through facilitated communication (Berger, 1994). Several such cases have
already occurred in Australia, and some have arisen in Europe (Green, 1992).
With the exception of three empirical studies (Intellectual Disability
Review Panel, 1989; Calculator and Singer, 1992; and Velazquez (in press)) which
provide preliminary validation of facilitated communication, most of the support
for the validity of facilitated communication is based on anecdotal reports.
Unfortunately, validity questions surround anecdotal reports of facilitated
communication. In general, these reports lack the controls necessary to rule out
experimenter biases, reliability concerns, and threats to validity (Cummins and
Prior, 1992; Jacobsen, Eberlin, Mulick, Schwartz, Szempruch, and Wheeler, 1994).
Although Biklen (1990) admits that facilitator influence is a real
possibility, facilitated communications are typically reported as though they
are the words of the person with a disability.
Without exception, these empirical studies have
questioned the authenticity of the communication as truly coming from the
individual versus the facilitator.
Interdisciplinary Party
Report (1988) and the Intellectual Disability Review Panel (1989) both of which
examined the source of facilitated communications produced by persons in
Australia, and found strong evidence that responses obtained through
facilitation were influenced by the facilitator.
Gina Green, Director of Research for the New England Center for Autism and
Associate Scientist for the E.K. Shriver Center for Mental Retardation, Inc.,
has reviewed over 150 cases where empirical testing was performed and cites 15
independent conduct evaluations involving 136 individuals with autism and/or
mental retardatiion who were alleged to have been taught to communicate via
facilitated communication. In none of the cases were investigators able to
confirm facilitated communication by the 136 individuals.
"Research evidence, replicated across several hundred children with autism spectrum disorders, shows that the facilitators rather than the individuals with autism spectrum disorders control the communication and that FC does not improve language skills (Mostert, 2001). Therefore, FC is an inappropriate intervention for individuals with autism spectrum disorders."