publication in 1900
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The Wonderful Wizard of Oz - 0 views
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The Wizard of Oz is an entity unto itself, however, and was not originally written with a sequel in mind
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Born near Syracuse in 1856, Baum was brought up in a wealthy home and early became interested in the theater. He wrote some plays which enjoyed brief success and then, with his wife and two sons, journeyed to Aberdeen, South Dakota, in 1887. Aberdeen was a little prairie town and there Baum edited the local weekly until it failed in 1891
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For many years Western farmers had been in a state of loud, though unsuccessful, revolt. While Baum was living in South Dakota not only was the frontier a thing of the past, but the Romantic view of benign nature had disappeared we well. The stark reality of the dry, open plains and the acceptance of man's Darwinian subservience to his environment served to crush Romantic idealism
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prices
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grasshoppers
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drought
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blizzards
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juggling of freight rates
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Baum's stay in South Dakota also covered the period of the formation of the Populist party, which Professor Nye likens to a fanatic "crusade".
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Western farmers had for a long time sought governmental aid in the form of economic panaceas, but to no avail. The Populist movement symbolized a desperate attempt to use the power of the ballot[8].
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Moreover, he took part in the pivotal election of 1896, marching in "torch-light parades for William Jennings Bryan"
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could have been unaffected by Bryan's campaign. Putting all the farmers' hopes in a basket labeled "free coinage of silver," Bryan's platform rested mainly on the issue of adding silver to the nation's gold standard. Though he lost, he did at least bring the plight of the little man into national focus[11].
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Nevertheless, Professor Nye quotes Baum as having a desire to write stories that would "bear the stamp of our times and depict the progressive fairies of today.
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Yet the original Oz book conceals an unsuspected depth
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children's story with a symbolic allegory implicit within its story line and characterizations
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subtle parable, Baum delineated a Midwesterner's vibrant and ironic portrait of this country as it entered the twentieth century.
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orothy, who was an orphan
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Dorothy's house has come down on the Wicked Witch of the East, killing her
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Notice that evil ruled in both the East and the West; after Dorothy's coming it rules only in the West.
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The Wicked Witch of the East had kept the little Munchkin people "in bondage for many years, making them slave for her night and day.
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In this way Eastern witchcraft dehumanized a simple laborer so that the faster and better he worked the more quickly he became a kind of machine. Here is a Populist view of evil Eastern influences on honest labor which could hardly be more pointed.
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There is one thing seriously wrong with being made of tin; when it rains rust sets in.
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Tin Woodman had been standing in the same position for a year without moving before Dorothy came along and oiled his joints
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he Tin Woodman's situation has an obvious parallel in the condition of many Eastern workers after the depression of 1893
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While Tin Woodman is standing still, rusted solid, he deludes himself into thinking he is no longer capable of that most human of sentiments, love
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the country is divided in a very orderly fashion. In the North and South the people are ruled by good witches, who are not quite as powerful as the wicked ones of the East and West
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Emerald City ruled by the Wizard of Oz
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Dorothy is Baum's Miss Everyman
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Dorothy sets out on the Yellow Brick Road wearing the Witch of the East's magic Silver Shoes
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Silver shoes walking on a golden road
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orothy becomes the innocent agent of Baum's ironic view of the Silver issue.
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neither Dorothy, nor the good Witch of the North, nor the Munchkins understand the power of these shoes. The allegory is abundantly clear
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William Allen White wrote an article in 1896 entitled "What's the Matter With Kansas?". In it he accused Kansas farmers of ignorance, irrationality and general muddle-headedness.
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the Scarecrow displays a terrible sense of inferiority and self doubt, for he has determined that he needs real brains to replace the common straw in his head
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the Cowardly Lion
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As King of Beasts he explains, "I learned that if I roared very loudly every living thing was frightened and got out of my way."
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Born a coward, he sobs, "Whenever there is danger my heart begins to beat fast
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The Lion represents Bryan himself
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In the election of 1896 Bryan lost the vote of Eastern Labor, though he tried hard to gain their support.
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"struck at the Tin Woodman with his sharp claws." But, to his surprise, "he could make no impression on the tin, although the Woodman fell over in the road and lay still.
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Baum here refers to the fact that in 1896 workers were often pressured into voting for McKinley and gold by their employers.
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The magic Silver Shoes belong to Dorothy
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ilver's potent charm, which had come to mean so much to so many in the Midwest, could not be entrusted to a political symbol
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All together now the small party moves toward the Emerald City. Coxey's Army of tramps and indigents, marching to ask President Cleveland for work in 1894, appears no more naively innocent than this group of four characters going to see a humbug Wizard, to request favors that only the little girl among them deserves.
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Those who enter the Emerald City must wear green glasses
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The Wizard, a little bumbling old man, hiding behind a facade of paper mache and noise, might be any president from Grant to McKinley
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he symbolizes the American criterion for leadership -- he is able to be everything to everybody.
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the Wizard assumes different shapes, representing different views toward national leadership. To Dorothy he appears as an enormous head, "bigger than the head of the biggest giant
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The Wizard has asked them all to kill the Witch of the West
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he golden road does not go in that direction and so they must follow the sun, as have many pioneers in the past
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The Witch of the West uses natural forces to achieve her ends; she is Baum's version of sentient and malign nature.
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Baum makes these Winged Monkeys into an Oz substitute for the plains Indians.
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Baum's monkeys are not inherently bad; their actions depend wholly upon the bidding of others. Under the control of an evil influence, they do evil. Under the control of goodness and innocence, as personified by Dorothy, the monkeys are helpful and kind, although unable to take her to Kansas. Says the Monkey King, "We belong to this country alone, and cannot leave it" (p. 213). The same could be said with equal truth of the first Americans.
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The Witch assumes that proportions of a kind of western Mark Hanna or Banker Boss, who, through natural malevolence, manipulates the people and holds them prisoner by cynically taking advantage of their innate innocence.
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Dorothy destroys the evil Witch by angrily dousing her with a bucket of water. Water, that precious commodity which the drought-ridden farmers on the great plains needed so badly, and which if correctly used could create an agricultural paradise, or at least dissolve a wicked witch.
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What a wonderful lesson for youngsters of the decade when Benjamin Harrison, Grover Cleveland and William McKinley were hiding in the White House.
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Formerly the Wizard was a mimic, a ventriloquist and a circus balloonist
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our little Wizard comes from Omaha, Nebraska, a center of Populist agitation
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Current historiography tends to criticize the Populist movement for its "delusions, myths and foibles
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Their desires, as well as the Wizard's cleverness in answering them, are all self-delusion. Each of these characters carries within him the solution to his own problem, were he only to view himself objectively.
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Like any good politician he gives the people what they want
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hroughout the story Baum poses a central thought; the American desire for symbols of fulfillment is illusory. Real needs lie elsewhere.
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In this way Baum tells us that the Silver crusade at least brought back Dorothy's lovely spirit to the disconsolate plains farmer. Her laughter, love and good will are no small addition to that gray land, although the magic of Silver has been lost forever as a result.
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Thereby farm interests achieve national importance, industrialism moves West and Bryan commands only a forest full of lesser politicians.
Precedent for the New World: The Spanish Conquest of the Canary Islands | The Anarchist... - 1 views
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Columbus lived for a time on Portugal’s plantation island of Madeira, with its then ample population of slaves. He married the daughter of Bartolome Perestrello
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Columbus had also worked as a sugar buyer for the Genoese banking family of the Centuriones; and ... must have seen slaves in the Canary Islands, working on the sugar plantations which he himself knew well
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Columbus’s 1492 voyage to the New World has often been identified as a turning point in the history of the last millennium. His governorship of Hispaniola — during which the native Caribs (from which the Caribbean derives its name) were enslaved and 90% died of disease or abuse within the first decade thanks to Columbus’s quest for gold — is said to have set precedent for Cortez and Pisarro’s looting of the Aztecs and Incas and the destruction of their civilisations. The gold and silver extracted from these was, in turn, said to have funded Habsburg domination of Europe for the next two centuries and the creation of the modern world out of the feudal order that preceded it.
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The other half of this story is Africa. The very basis of the ease of the conquistadors’ take-over of the New World — the indigenous peoples’ vulnerability to European diseases — also made them useless as a labour force and so Africans had to be shipped in instead as slaves.
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For the next three centuries, the exploitation of Africa made that of the New World possible.
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the Triangular Trade that ensured the maturation of capitalism and underpinned the elaboration of Enlightenment high culture — the shipping of slaves from Africa to harvest such staples of European life as sugar, cotton and tobacco in the New World. It built the investment infrastructure of capitalism.
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Ultimately, the Portuguese proved more adept at the ‘great game’ of imperialism than the Spanish — the 1493 Treaty of Tordesillas gave them the best slave ports in equatorial Africa and Brazilian plantations which proved so extensive and productive that they supplied even north America with tobacco
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it was the Spanish that came first, and it was they that set the pattern.
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but a key
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was the Spanish and Portuguese conquest of the Azores, Madeiras, and Canary Islands during the 15th century.
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Alfred Crosby argued in his 1986 history, Ecological Imperialism:[2]
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[T]he Iberian conquest of the Azores, Madeiras and Canaries [w]as a pilot program for the reshaping of European colonies in the Americas, Africa, Australia, and Oceania. In all these places, the newcomers would conquer the human populations and Europeanize entire ecosystems. They dared this because they had seen from the Iberian experience in the Canaries that European crops and herds would thrive in all but the most hostile, unfamiliar environments, and that the fiercest indigenes could be beaten despite their superior numbers and home-ground advantage. As a result, tens of millions of natives around the world would die.
1491 - Charles C. Mann - The Atlantic - 0 views
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It is Erickson's belief that this entire landscape—30,000 square miles of forest mounds surrounded by raised fields and linked by causeways—was constructed by a complex, populous society more than 2,000 years ago.
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When I went to high school, in the 1970s, I was taught that Indians came to the Americas across the Bering Strait about 12,000 years ago, that they lived for the most part in small, isolated groups, and that they had so little impact on their environment that even after millennia of habitation it remained mostly wilderness.
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In 1810 Henry Brackenridge came to Cahokia, in what is now southwest Illinois, just across the Mississippi from St. Louis. Born close to the frontier, Brackenridge was a budding adventure writer; his Views of Louisiana, published three years later, was a kind of nineteenth-century Into Thin Air,
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Cahokia
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Bancroft changed his mind about Cahokia, but not about Indians. To the end of his days he regarded them as "feeble barbarians, destitute of commerce and of political connection."
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Samuel Eliot Morison, the winner of two Pulitzer Prizes, closed his monumental European Discovery of America (1974) with the observation that Native Americans expected only "short and brutish lives, void of hope for any future."
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1987 American History: A Survey, a standard high school textbook by three well-known historians, described the Americas before Columbus as "empty of mankind and its works."
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The story of Europeans in the New World, the book explained, "is the story of the creation of a civilization where none existed."
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Alfred Crosby, a historian at the University of Texas, came to other conclusions. Crosby's The Columbian Exchange: Biological Consequences of 1492 caused almost as much of a stir when it was published, in 1972,
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Human history, in Crosby's interpretation, is marked by two world-altering centers of invention: the Middle East and central Mexico,
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10,000 years ago. In the next few millennia humankind invented the wheel, the metal tool, and agriculture. The Sumerians eventually put these inventions together, added writing, and became the world's first civilization
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But in agriculture they handily outstripped the children of Sumeria. Every tomato in Italy, every potato in Ireland, and every hot pepper in Thailand came from this hemisphere
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Indian crops dramatically reduced hunger, Crosby says, which led to an Old World population boom.
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Disease was hunger's constant companion. During epidemics in London the dead were heaped onto carts "like common dung" (the simile is Daniel Defoe's) and trundled through the streets.
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Indians had ailments of their own, notably parasites, tuberculosis, and anemia
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life-spans in America were only as long as or a little longer than those in Europe
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Some early colonists gave the same answer. Horrifying the leaders of Jamestown and Plymouth, scores of English ran off to live with the Indians.
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ather than domesticating animals for meat, Indians retooled whole ecosystems to grow bumper crops of elk, deer, and bison.
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Millennia of exuberant burning shaped the plains into vast buffalo farms. When Indian societies disintegrated, forest invaded savannah in Wisconsin, Illinois, Kansas, Nebraska, and the Texas Hill Country.
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Indeed, some anthropologists have called the Amazon forest itself a cultural artifact—that is, an artificial object.
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This sort of phrase still provokes vehement objection—but the main dissenters are now ecologists and environmentalists.
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Oxford University Press has just issued the third volume of a huge catalogue of the "cultivated landscapes" of the Americas
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In recent years one of these caves, La Caverna da Pedra Pintada (Painted Rock Cave), has drawn attention in archaeological circles.
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Amazonia says that the apparent lushness of the rain forest is a sham. The soils are poor and can't hold nutrients—
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Green activists saw the implication: development in tropical forests destroys both the forests and their developers. Meggers's account had enormous public impact—Amazonia is one of the wellsprings of the campaign to save rain forests.
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Moundbuilders of the Amazon (1991), was like the anti-matter version of Amazonia
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Marajó, she argued, was "one of the outstanding indigenous cultural achievements of the New World," a powerhouse that lasted for more than a thousand years, had "possibly well over 100,000" inhabitants, and covered thousands of square miles. Rather than damaging the forest, Marajó's "earth construction" and "large, dense populations" had improved it: the most luxuriant and diverse growth was on the mounds formerly occupied by the Marajóara.
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William Balée, the Tulane anthropologist, cautiously estimated that about 12 percent of the nonflooded Amazon forest was of anthropogenic origin—directly or indirectly created by human beings.
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In the late 1990s Woods and others began careful measurements in the lower Amazon. They indeed found lots of inhospitable terrain.
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But they also discovered swaths of terra preta—rich, fertile "black earth" that anthropologists increasingly believe was created by human beings.
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Apparently," Woods and the Wisconsin geographer Joseph M. McCann argued in a presentation last summer, "at some threshold level ... dark earth attains the capacity to perpetuate—even regenerate itself—thus behaving more like a living 'super'-organism than an inert material."
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"Betty Meggers would just die if she heard me saying this," Woods told me. "Deep down her fear is that this data will be misused."
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All of this is described as "wilderness" in the tourist brochures. It's not, if researchers like Roosevelt are correct.
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Within a few hundred yards the human presence seemed to vanish. I felt alone and small, but in a way that was curiously like feeling exalted. If that place was not wilderness, how should I think of it? Since the fate of the forest is in our hands, what should be our goal for its future?
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A keystone species, according to the Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson, is a species "that affects the survival and abundance of many other species." Keystone species have a disproportionate impact on their ecosystems. Removing them, Wilson adds, "results in a relatively significant shift in the composition of the [ecological] community."
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In ecological terms, he says, the Indians were the "keystone species" of American ecosystems.
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When disease swept Indians from the land, Kay says, what happened was exactly that. The ecological ancien régime collapsed, and strange new phenomena emerged
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Throughout eastern North America the open landscape seen by the first Europeans quickly filled in with fores
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Cronon's Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists, and the Ecology of New England (1983) belongs on the same shelf as works by Crosby and Dobyns.
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Crediting Indians with the role of keystone species has implications for the way the current Euro-American members of that keystone species manage the forests, watersheds, and endangered species of America. Because a third of the United States is owned by the federal government, the issue inevitably has political ramifications. In Amazonia, fabled storehouse of biodiversity, the stakes are global
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Guided by the pristine myth, mainstream environmentalists want to preserve as much of the world's land as possible in a putatively intact state. But "intact," if the new research is correct, means "run by human beings for human purposes."
Angela Davis Still Believes America Can Change - The New York Times - 0 views
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there’s no love lost between mainstream liberalism and the more so-called radical voices that arose in the ’70s
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Angela Davis survived that dangerous time with her reputation intact, her spirit unbroken and her critical vision of the American free-enterprise system unchanged
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she is to a piercing and radical tradition of struggle in the Black community that has never, as the kids say, “been given their flowers.”
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As a bridge between the past and present eras of protest, Davis can explain both what went right and wrong while also helping to shape the future.
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she expresses a relaxed optimism about the country’s direction.
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a professor who has taught history of consciousness, critical theory and feminist studies for five decades,
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Stuart Hall,
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Prudence Crandall
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Anne Braden
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For many contemporary African-American activists, race has been a blind spot for white feminists and for the feminist movement at large.
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But the numerous issues of inequality facing working-class and poor Black women
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had never been very vital to the mainstream feminist agenda
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So how is it possible to develop the kinds of arguments that will allow people to recognize that one cannot effectively struggle for gender equality without racial equality?
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She believes narrow definitions of any progressive movement feed a self-centeredness that limits its ability to unify with other groups. In other words, she understood the necessity of intersectionality before the term was even invented.
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“Intersectionality” is a neologism introduced in 1989 by the Black law professor Kimberlé Crenshaw, who teaches at U.C.L.A.
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and Columbia University.
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that Black women are subject to discrimination based not just on race, class or sex but the interaction of all of them
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this philosophy is easier to demand from a podium than to write into policy, where efforts have been stymied by self-interest and personal prejudices. But as we discuss her past, I detect no cynicism, no despair nor frustration —
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Davis sees a chance for us to re-examine capitalism, which she views as irredeemably flawed
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And yet in so much of what they did accomplish — with civil rights, women’s rights, L.G.B.T.Q. rights, the environment and scores of other issues — they have radically shifted America’s expectations and norms.
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Along with coalition building, Davis has long been passionate about radically changing the criminal justice system
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a reimagining of policing and incarceration has been essential to her vision for decades.
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)
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It allows us to imagine other ways of addressing issues of safety and security. Most of us have assumed in the past that when it comes to public safety, the police are the ones who are in charge. When it comes to issues of harm in the community, prisons are the answer. But what if we imagined different modes of addressing harm, different modes of addressing security and safety?
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I have thought often of Davis’s ideas on law enforcement, especially around issues involving the mentally il
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but also their leadership models — and in particular, how they have avoided the pitfalls of their predecessors: primarily, a cultish fixation on a charismatic male leader
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most left-of-center organizations opposed to the American status quo in the ’60s suffered from some version of the Great Man syndrome, where women were either relegated to support roles or their contributions to the organizations were minimized.
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Fannie Lou Hamer
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Huey P. Newton w
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Mark Rudd
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[Younger activists] know so much more than we did at their age,” she says. “They don’t take male supremacy for granted.
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One aspect of this shift in leadership models has to do with a critique of patriarchy and a critique of male supremacy.
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Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors and Opal Tometi
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all of whom have prevented a cult of personality developing around themselves
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E.D. Nixon,
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Rev. Martin Luther King Jr.
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Yet “[the boycott] took place because Black women — domestic workers — had the collective imagination to believe that it was possible to change the world, and they were the ones who refused to ride the bus,”
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Crucial to her intellectual development was her mother’s participation with the Southern Negro Youth Congress;
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several of the organization’s leaders were members of the Communist Party.
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the Communist Party supported the struggle against segregation from the 1930s until the Red Scare in the 1950s forced their participation underground. (It’s widely known, for example, that Bayard Rustin, a gay activist and former Communist, was a leading tactician of the 1963 March on Washington. What is less well remembered is how much the party supported the grass-roots organizing of the S.N.Y.C., along with many activist groups across the nation.)
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Davis spent two of her high school years attending an integrated school in New York thanks to a Quaker-run program that placed promising Black Southerners in Northern schools
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she studied under the philosopher Herbert Marcuse,
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From 1965 to 1967, she studied in Europe, learning several languages, deepening her understanding of German philosophy and participating in rallies for the Socialist German Student Union.
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t was during these expatriate years that Davis began to see the racism she’d experienced growing up as a byproduct of an economy predicated on cheap, exploited labor, identifying institutional racism as a systemic problem long before the phrase came into vogue.
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After returning to the United States in 1967, Davis affirmed her commitment to Communism
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a key reason that she became associated with the Marxist-influenced Black Panthers
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Because of her training and time spent abroad, Davis offered a more international vision as she attempted to build connections between oppressed groups, choosing not to separate the African-American struggle from that of other marginalized peoples, such as the Hmong, caught in the violence of the Vietnam War, and the battle against apartheid in South Africa. It’s why, in part, her arrest so resonated across the world.
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In 1991, she stepped away, along with a number of other members, because the party refused to engage in processes of democratization; they formed a new organization, the Committees of Correspondence for Democracy and Socialism.
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NO MOVEMENT IS static. Contemporary Black activism has also largely been informed by the concurrent agitation surrounding trans and queer rights,
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oth forces that have pushed back against the staunchly cis and heteronormative values that have dominated mainstream Black politics.
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Though briefly married to a man in the early ’80s, Davis came out as a lesbian in 1997 and now openly lives with her partner, the academic Gina Dent.
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There would have been no way to imagine that trans movements would effectively demonstrate to people that it is possible to effectively challenge what counts as normal in so many different areas of our lives.
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A part of me is glad that we didn’t win the revolution we were fighting for back then, because there would still be male supremacy. There would still be hetero-patriarchy. There would be all of these things that we had not yet come to consciousness about.”
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There’s a tendency to define racial progress in America by the upward mobility of various “minority groups” — to count and celebrate how many members have entered the middle class, have graduated from college or have multimillion-dollar deals with streaming services.
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Davis, however, finds those signifiers meaningless. Racism, she believes, will continue to exist as long as capitalism remains our secular religion.
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The elephant in the room is always capitalism,”
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Capitalism has always been racial capitalism.
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We do need free education. Why is it that people pay fifty, sixty, seventy thousand dollars a year to study in a university? Housing: That’s something sort of just basic. At a time when we need access to these services more than ever before, the wealth of the world has shifted into the hands of a very small number of people.”
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It may be easy to be cynical about Communism and claim that America won the Cold War, but it’s also impossible to deny that this country’s financial system breeds income inequality, homelessness and divides us into warring camps separated by class, sex and race.
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Does she think the Democratic Party could be a vehicle for transforming America? “To be frank, no,” she says, but then adds, “I think it’s important to push the Democrats further to the left,” expressing great enthusiasm for the four progressive female congresswomen — Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, Ilhan Omar, Ayanna Pressley and Rashida Tlaib — elected in 2018.
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Occupy Wall Street movement in 2011
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Black Lives Matter movement.
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this is a moment many years in the making, based in grass-roots organizing that’s been happening outside the world of party politics and thus underrecognized by the mainstream media.
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It’s also the kind of organizing that doesn’t always bear fruit quickly.
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there are no guarantees, to use Stuart Hall’s phrase, that our work will have an immediate effect,” she says. “But we have to do it as if it were possible.”
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She’s heartened, too, by the diversity of participants in Black Lives Matter marches and the willingness of white protesters to embrace the battle against white supremacy
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As we looked at the damage that the pandemic was doing, people began to realize the extent to which Black communities, brown communities and Indigenous communities were sustaining the effect of a pandemic in ways that pointed to the existence of structural racism.
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AMERICANS ARE TERRIBLE at understanding history.
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We buy all too easily into the jingoism of Hollywood movies and our politicians’ pious platitudes. We possess an unjustified sense of self-regard. The effects of an inflated ego are pernicious; they stifle our ability to clearly see the world outside of ourselves, or our own role in it.
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Davis, though, has never accepted the myth of American exceptionalism. Rather, she has consistently argued that our triumphant narrative of Manifest Destiny is simply a cover for an exploitive financial system that corrupts our public life and represses our humanity
The New England and Middle colonies (article) | Khan Academy - 0 views
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Navigation ActsA series of acts passed between 1650 and 1673 that established three rules of colonial trade: first, trade must be carried out only on English ships; second, all goods imported into the colonies had to pass through ports in England; and third, specific goods, such as tobacco, could be exported only to England
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Proprietary colonyColonies that were under the authority of individuals that had been granted charters of ownership, like Maryland and Pennsylvania.
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The New England colonies were founded to escape religious persecution
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Motivations for colonization:
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The Middle colonies, like Delaware, New York, and New Jersey, were founded as trade centers,
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The Middle colonies were also called the “Breadbasket colonies”
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New England colonies attracted Puritan settlers with families
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Demographics
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not single indentured servants
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Middle colonies attracted a diverse group of European migrants, including Germans, Scots-Irish, French, and Swedish
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Economics in the colonies: Colonial economies developed based on each colony’s environment
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New England colonies depended on fishing, lumbering, and subsistence farming
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Middle colonies also featured mixed economies, including farming and merchant shipping
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Establishing representative governments:
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Mayflower Compact
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Taking into account that the English colonies were still under the British crown, creating the Mayflower Compact was unusually democratic for the time.
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rench, and Dutch colonizers, the English colonizers rarely married Native Americans
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Unlike the Spanish
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F
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Wampanoag
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Narragansett