sporadic

Hedges modified Smith’s trade theory by suggesting that a cattle trade replaced a sharply dwindling ivory trade during the late 18th century, and argued that it was this change that influenced the development of state formatio

Hedges claimed that the ivory trade had rapidly declined by the end of the 18th century, and was replaced by a substantial cattle trade based on whalers’ need for fresh mea

The characteristic feature of trade during most of the 18th century was its sporadic nature, maintained ever since the establishment of the Portuguese ivory trade in the 16th century

t was under these favourable circumstances that Edward Chandler and his experienced crew made their way to Delagoa Bay with an official licence to exploit the ivory market from 1756.

Besides the limited political interference displayed by Europeans at this time, the greater level of ivory supply to the coast can be attributed to the ample supply of brass

he demand for ivory at Delagoa Bay was nothing new and was the reason for the Portuguese trade initiative in 154

During the Dutch era, ivory traders from the north-west interior in search of dark blue glass beads approached the coast to trade, but because these beads were always in short supply, the ivory trade faltered

It was the abundant and constant supply of brass that determined the volume of ivory delivered to Europeans along the Maputo river, and I suggest that it was this factor, the ample supply of brass, that was the first in a sequence of events that led to state formation among the Nguni.

The average weight of Austrian exports alone, other than the continuing country trade, amounted to an average of 75,000 lb per annum. 36 This figure translates to 6,250 lb of ivory per month, representing the slaughter of over 160 elephants per month for the sake of the trade. This number assumes a conservative average of 39 lb of ivory per elephant, based on the ivory provided to the Dutch over the period 1 November 1731–8 January 1732. 37 The heaviest tusks that the Dutch traded weighed 80 lb, and if the Austrians traded exclusively in heavier tusks, hunters needed to kill at least one elephant a day to meet the demand. 38

The basis of this assumption is the reach of the intermediary kingdom of Mabudu, which stretched to this river – and it was here that brass, a trade item almost as popular as beads, was in high demand

the Dutch traded copper bangles for ivory during the early stages of their trading post

1 Further south, in Terra Natal, copper and, later, brass played a significant role in designating rank within the small chiefdoms of the early Nguni-speaking people. 52 Early observers noted the importance of dress and ornaments to distinguish rank. In a hierarchical society such as that of the Nguni, objects such as beads and metal jewellery, along with dressed skins, created a visual reminder of the status and prestige of the elite

Traders like Chandler had easy access to brass because, by the late 17th century, British copper and brass dominated markets worldwide because of regulatory and technological developments

The significance of brass lay in its power to enhance chiefly prestige, signifying chiefs’ status as effective political leaders, with the

resources to attract and maintain a following. Brass, as copper, symbolised power, illustrated by Livingstone’s anecdote: ‘[w]hen [the chief] had finished his long oration he rose up, and in going off was obliged by such large bundles of copper rings on his ankles to adopt quite a straddling walk.

Elephant hunting was labour intensive: men needed to locate, track, pursue and bring down animals, cut out tusks and carry their spoils long distances to collection points along the upper reaches of the Maputo river. 3

Whalers supplied goods – brass, cloth and beads – generously in exchange for food. 7

He hypothesises that the whalers needed great quantities of meat, which, in turn, required large numbers of cattle on the hoof to be imported to Delagoa Bay. Y et the number of whalers was not as large as Hedges supposed, and the relatively small number of men was there for a limited time

But by the mid 18th century, the provision of meat and vegetables, particularly onions, increasingly became the domain of the Tembe chief. 90 The growing fresh-food sector of the market enabled the Tembe chief to increase his authority over his territory, evident in the appointment of the ‘King of the Water’ from at least 1784

Although it had fallen to lower levels, the ivory trade remained significant to the south-east African trade network.

the sharp decline of the ivory trade by 1814, compared to the period of 1802– 1803, was not concurrent with the presence of large numbers of whalers at Delagoa Bay. There was a reduction in whaling activity globally from the beginning of the 19th century

The comparative decline in the ivory trade from 1781, when the Portuguese re-established their authority over trade, diminished the flow of brass into the interior. As a sumptuous item, brass demanded stricter control over its redistribution, forming the pressing motive for the conflict among the northern Ngun

Between 1990 and 2000, the elephants in Botswana, South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Namibia, were added to Appendix II, which permits trade in ivory but requires an export permit to do it

As demand for ivory increased, elephant populations were decimated. In 1900, several African colonies passed game laws that limited hunting,

African and Arab traders of enslaved people traveled inland from the coast, purchased or hunted down large numbers of captives and ivory, and then forced the enslaved people to carry the ivory as they marched down to the coast. Once they reached the coast, the traders sold both the enslaved people and ivory for hefty profits.

ughout the nineteenth century, East Africa ranked as the foremost source of ivory in the world; ivory over-topped all rivals, even slaves, in export value, and it

ucrative,

The onslaught on the ivory reserves of the East African interior in the nineteenth century took the form of a two-way thrust, that from the north by the Egyptians under Muhammad Ali, which penetrated southwards into the Sudan and Equatoria, and that from the east coast by the Arabs under Sultan Said of Zanzibar, following the transference of the seat of his authority from Muscat to Zanzibar in I83

Arab traders returning from the interior brought back tales of great riches in ivory to be had almost for the taking. European travellers added to and embroidered

Katomba's people arrived from Babisa where they sold all their copper at two rings for a tusk, then found that abundance of ivory still remained, door posts, and house pillars had been made of ivory which was now rotten. The people of Babisa kill elephants now and bring tusks by the dozen till traders get so many that they carried them in relays.8

e to the

The British East Africa Company purchased ivory in Buganda at the rate of 35 lb. of ivory for two kegs of powd

ever as good as that from the dry, upland regions of the interior. Soft ivory is white, opaque, and smooth, it is gently curved, and easily worked, and has what might be called 'spring'. Hard ivory, on the other hand, is translucent, glossy and of a heavier specific gravity than soft ivory; it is more subject to extremes of temperature and more difficult to carve.

e. Ivory also fell into the ruler's hands in the form of tribute from subject states.15 The arrival of Basoga and Bakedi chiefs bearing rich presents of ivory was a common occurrence at Mutesa's court, as the first missionaries in Uganda obse

The value of ivory was calculated in different ways. The African estimated its value by its size and quality. The Arab carried his steel-yard scales which were simple and practical, and, all things being equal, he purchased ivory by weight, the unit being the frasilah (34-36 lb.).16 In the southern Sudan and some parts of East Africa-for example, in Karagweivory was valued in terms of cattle, and this was one of the causes of the cattle raids carried out by ivory dealers. With the cattle they looted, they could trade for more ivo

nsion and development, and this required more capital than the Arab possessed. The first Europeans to arrive on the East African coast had found the ivory trade largely in the hands of the Indian merchants at Zan

emarked: 'The whole trade in ivory, slaves, and gum copal is carried on by the natives of India, the ivory is consigned to them from the

The quest for ivory was never-ending. The price on the world market was remarkably free from fluctuations; no commodity retained such a stable price as did ivory in the nineteenth

uld be exchanged for more ivory, which was brought daily into the camp. The rate of exchange, a cow for a tusk of ivory, offered a very profitable transaction, since the cows cost nothing. Baker speaks of expeditions capturing as many as 2,000 ca

Ivory from Bunyoro had very little outlet until almost the end of the century; ivory traders from the north did not penetrate this far south, and Bunyoro's trade south and eastwards was strictly controlled by Buganda.

The last region to be exploited for its ivory was northern Kenya. The formidable reputation of the Masai had kept this area free from interlopers. The few Arab caravans which had dared to enter Masailand in i882-83 were wiped out. However, the uneventful trip of Joseph Thomson through Masailand in 1884 and the expeditions of Carl Peters and Count Teleki in 1888-89 did much to debunk the rep