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Many higher education institutions are either offering online courses or are planning such initiatives. Critics argue that college and university administrators are forcing online courses upon students and professors as cost-saving measures, and at some universities students have expressed discontentment with online course initiatives (Jaffee, 1998; Noble, 1998). Others are wondering aloud if online courses are in fact the answer to challenges such as rapid tuition increases and a changing student body (Feenberg, 1999; Hara & Kling, 2000; Rahm & Reed, 1998).

Western universities receive strong scores on student-staff interaction, while those in Japan are rated highly on applying students' learning to the 'real world'

Social presence, the ability to perceive others in an online environment, has been shown to impact student motivation and participation, actual and perceived learning, course and instructor satisfaction, and retention in online courses; yet very few researchers have attempted to look across contexts, disciplinary areas, or measures of social presence.