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cannot be reversed to regenerate the original fuel mass

a fuel problem does exist

If the supply of fuel is finite, not only will there be no energy supply when the fuel is exhausted

all other processes that depend on it will cease

Several factors combine to make the problem an urgent one

World population

demand for energy will also increase

coal, oil (petroleum), natural gas, uranium, and fuel wood—is limited and insufficient to sustain rapid rates of development.

debate about the exact length of time available before the effects of a worldwide shortage become apparent

shortage will occur.

geothermal energy, hydroelectric power, peat, ocean thermal energy, solar energy, tidal energy, wind power, and fuel wood.

replenish themselves naturally in a relatively short time and will therefore always be available.

Renewable energy resources

indirectly responsible for many other renewable energy sources.

ocean currents and winds are results of the uneven distribution of solar radiation over the Earth's surface

winds in turn produce waves whose energy can be utilized

windmills and wind power

ocean thermal energy, solar heating of the upper layers of the ocean produces temperature gradients that can be harnessed to generate electricity

Sun also powers the hydrologic cycle, in which ocean water is evaporated, transported over the continents, and precipitated as rain or snow to form rivers

flow energy produces hydroelectric power.

energy locked in such renewable fuel sources as wood and peat is derived from the Sun by the process of photosynthesis.

renewable energy source is geothermal energy

arises through the leakage of heat from the Earth's interior to the surface

over the entire surface of the Earth at a very low average rate, leakage is much higher in certain locations.

Yellowstone National Park

Iceland, Italy, and New Zealand.

possible to tap the heat and use it for human purposes.

Nonrenewable resources originate from two processes: (1) photosynthesis, which occurred many millions of years ago, followed by the fossilization of the plant and animal life that resulted, and (2) the formation of the Earth itself.

fossil fuels—coal, oil (petroleum), and natural gas;

produced the fuels for nuclear energy, such as uranium for fission and lighter elements for fusion

irreplaceable fuels represent an energy capital that must be invested wisely.

A cleaner-burning fuel than oil, natural gas seemed to be in abundant supply at the turn of the 21st century and, with the greatly enlarged network of gas pipelines, was rapidly growing in use.

nearly total dependence on fossil fuels and hydroelectricity ensures that efforts to solve energy problems by switching to alternative sources will have to overcome a great deal of inertia, both economic and psychological.

sources as solar power, wind power, and synthetic fuels suffer from the serious drawback that few major installations now exist.

handicapped by the engineering problems of converting the energy to a form useful to human beings.

solar energy reaches the top of the atmosphere in amounts 10,000 times greater than all human production of energy, it reaches the Earth's surface at rates of only about 80 to 250 W/m2, and considerably less on cloudy days.

arge-scale system based on solar-collector panels will be physically huge, causing problems of maintenance and land use

Wind power, wave power, and ocean-thermal-generation sources suffer from similar difficulties

One conclusion to be drawn from the Yale-Columbia project is the need for better data, which requires funds.

Experiences like the recent biofuels surge, which is driving up food prices, show how treacherous even well-intentioned decisions about the environment can be when they're uninformed.

The same holds for consumers, who sometimes think paying somebody to plant a few trees will compensate for flying around the world in airplanes.

For such decisions, data are essential. If we're going to avoid squandering our natural resources, the quicker we begin to rely more on facts and less on assumptions, the better.

Some countries simply lie or make up the facts.

Today's Russian bureaucrats may still be fudging its environmental figures.

Among the worst offenders were Japan, South Korea, Brazil, the United States, Italy and Paraguay.

(While there are good comparative data on ozone, smog also includes nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxides and other components that are poorly tracked in most nations.) Among the best industrial countries were Malaysia, the United Kingdom and all of Eastern Europe (a legacy of the Soviet nuclear program).

Saudi Arabia, Egypt and the United Arab Emirates, which have more severe water problems.

Brazil is another country whose high rank—34th—is deceptive.

Brazil is a vast land blessed with an abundance of water, which yields energy relatively cheaply with no carbon emissions

Brazil is now the world's fourth biggest emitter of carbon, mainly due to the felling of trees.

By contrast, Belgium and the Netherlands, which share much in terms of population and geography with their neighbors, suffer from neglect of the environment—particularly in protecting native habitats.

find a cost-effective way to extract the energy from such promising sources.

For the following 700 years, shoguns from a succession of clans ruled in Japan, while the imperial court existed in relative obscurity.

Suspicious of Christianity and of Portuguese support of a local Japanese revolt, the shoguns of the Tokugawa period (1603–1867) prohibited all trade with foreign countries; only a Dutch trading post at Nagasaki was permitted.

The Japanese began to take steps to extend their empire.

In World War I, Japan seized Germany's Pacific islands and leased areas in China.

At the Washington Conference of 1921–1922, Japan agreed to respect Chinese national integrity, but, in 1931, it invaded Manchuria.

The dropping of atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945 by the United States finally brought the government to admit defeat. Japan surrendered formally on Sept. 2, 1945, aboard the battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

The U.S. and Japan signed a security treaty in 1951, allowing for U.S. troops to be stationed in Japan. In 1952, Japan regained full sovereignty, and, in 1972, the U.S. returned to Japan the Ryuku Islands, including Okinawa.

A shrewd trade policy gave Japan larger shares in many Western markets, an imbalance that caused some tensions with the U.S.

During the 1990s, Japan suffered an economic downturn prompted by scandals involving government officials, bankers, and leaders of industry. Japan succumbed to the Asian economic crisis in 1998, experiencing its worst recession since World War II.

The embattled Mori resigned in April 2001 and was replaced by Liberal Democrat Junichiro Koizumi—the country's 11th prime minister in 13 years.

Koizumi was overwhelmingly reelected in Sept. 2003 and promised to push ahead with tough economic reforms.

In April 2005, China protested the publication of Japanese textbooks that whitewashed the atrocities committed by Japan during World War II.

Princesss Kiko gave birth to a boy in September.

The child's birth spares Japan a controversial debate over whether women should be allowed to ascend to the throne.

He suffered a stunning blow in July 2007 parliamentary elections, however, when his Liberal Democratic Party lost control of the upper house to the opposition Democratic Party.

A 6.8 magnitude earthquake struck in northwest Japan in July 2007, killing 10 people and injuring more than 900. The tremor caused skyscrapers in Tokyo to sway for almost a minute, buckled roads and bridges, and damaged a nuclear power plant. About 315 gallons of radioactive water leaked into the Sea of Japan.

he move followed a string of scandals and the stunning defeat of his Liberal Democratic Party in July's parliamentary elections

In June 2008, the upper house of Parliament, which is controlled by the opposition, censured Fukuda, citing his management of domestic issues.

The opposition Democratic Party of Japan, which won control of the upper house of Parliament in 2007, poses a viable threat to the Liberal Democrats who have been in control for more than 50 years.