Paper was well organized and addressed the topic well. The information was well presented and it did a great job explaining various tools available to the learner and teacher. However, there was only one source. With only one source, it seemed more of a "book report" or summary than a research paper. 4.5 points

Nice job evaluating and overcoming the challenges of online learning as faced by both the students and instructors. You also seemed to concentrate your research on the collegiate setting. This allowed for a more focused paper. Good work, Team 6. 5.0 points

Section I

"If you tell me, I will listen. If you show me, I will see. But if you let me experience, I will learn." The means by which humans experience knowledge has evolved exponentially since the philosopher Lao-Tse spoke his parables to students in the 5th century B.C. From the clay tablets of the Sumerians to the great orators of ancient Rome, human beings have evolved as a result of societies' ability to transmit what has been experienced and discovered. The transmission of knowledge is closely linked to societies' development, and man's fervor to learn has resulted in countless mediums to educate the masses. Similarly, in the 21st century knowledge transmission and delivery coincides with the advancements of our technological age. Driven by globalization, rapid technological change and other factors such as increased demand in higher education and the ever increasing availability of online technologies, online delivery of knowledge and information has given rise to what has been called the revolution of online learning. Enabled by Internet connectivity and other Web-based technologies, it is understandable that online learning would be misunderstood as a means of acquiring knowledge electronically, also known as e-learning. However, e-learning encompasses a variety of technologies that include radio, television, computers, digital projectors, and other electronic tools. While there are some commonalties between the e-learning and online learning, the technological products themselves are of less concern than the medium of communication that technology creates. Online learning distinguishes itself from e-learning because it fosters computer based networks of collaboration and communication. Knowledge building and acquisition occur through social processes.

The online revolution, as it is called, was 3.94 million strong in 2007 (Allen, 2008). Such numbers lead one to ponder the question, "What is driving online learning"? How have we arrived at this juncture, and what will be the future of online learning? Historically speaking, knowledge delivery began well before the existence of computers and the Internet. The first distance education courses came about in the mid-nineteenth century. In 1840 an Englishman named Isaac Pitman began teaching shorthand by mail. In 1858 the University of London allowed individuals to sit for exams without taking courses (Maeroff, pg. 22). Thus began the delivery of private correspondence courses to prepare candidates for exams. In the 1880s, William Rainey Harper introduced correspondence courses at the Chautauqua College. After becoming the founding president of the University of Chicago in 1892, he instituted correspondence programs there as well. Throughout the late 19th century and into the early 20th century, universities across the United States offered education by correspondence programs. One of the driving forces was the Outreach Mission. Many land-grant institutions were established by states during the second-half of the nineteenth century. Outreach, through so-called extension courses, was guaranteed to participants. Some Outreach by correspondence courses continued into our computer age. The online high school at the University of Missouri was developed out of the correspondence program. Distance education is offered in both correspondence and online classes. The World Campus at Penn State also evolved out of a distance education program that began as a correspondence study program for farmers in 1892. Distance education was added to with every advance in technology during the 20th century. Film, radio, and television all became mediums of distance learning delivery from the early part of the 20th century through the 1950s. In the 1960s, airplanes became a medium of delivery. They were used by Purdue University to transmit instructional programs over Midwestern states. Toward the end of the 20th century technology gave distance learning more tools such as audiotapes, videotapes, and CD-ROMs. Telecourses became a popular medium of learning. One of the first telecourses to be used in formal education was called Sunrise Semester. Telecourses such as this attempted to cover a wide range of disciplines to make full use of the sophistication of television. While the Public Broadcasting System still offers its' adult learning services through colleges and universities, it is not regarded with the same enthusiasm as online learning is regarded. The first generalized computer assisted instruction system was called PLATO. It was built by the University of Illinois in 1960, and it operated for forty years offering coursework, elementary through university, to UIUC students, local schools, and other universities. Between 1960 and 1994 significant developments occurred that would evolve into online learning as we know it. Of significance were the creation of the internet in 1969, the development of the Lotus Learning Management System and Lotus Virtual Classroom, and the Opening of University Virtual Summer School in 1994. Between 1994 and today, other learning management systems and virtual schools were created. Web 2.0 tools are now making their presence known in online distributed education.

Today there are varied definitions of an online course. At one end of the spectrum there is classroom-based teaching supplemented by lecture notes posted on a web site or by electronic communication such as e-mail. At the other end materials may be made available and interactions occur exclusively through networked technologies. Many courses are a mix of several mediums or blended in some way. The term online means teaching and learning which takes place over a computer network of some kind, such as the Internet, and in which interaction between people is an important form of support for the learning process. Interaction occurs in both synchronous and asynchronous forms, and also through text, video, audio and in shared virtual worlds. Online learning has come a long way from the original distance course first offered by Pittman. Learning has come full circle. If we reflect on early education, children were taught in their homes by parents long before the one-room school house existed. Online learning is a return to what formerly existed. The difference is that we now have technology to deliver information we learn, instead of our parents.

It is impossible to examine the roots of online learning without examining the factors that have driven online learning? Throughout history, education has taken on various forms as a result of factors that drive societies' needs. What has become the revolution of online learning has in fact become so due to evolvements that have similarly driven historical change. The Internet and the World Wide Web have had more than a tremendous impact on political, economic, and social systems. The web has transformed both business and social life, and it has a significant role in the economic and social development of some countries. The nature of business interactions, political events, and education began to change in the 1990's with the inception of the Internet. Forms of mass communication such as email and mobile phones became a norm for many people in developed parts of the world. Speculation about the technologically driven economy and how it would change created investment frenzy in the new world market place. After the turn of the century, online access became faster with the delivery of Broadband. Multi-media, digital images, and video streaming were now available to the ever increasing numbers of PCs connected to the World Wide Web. With the increased availability of images around the world, society began to take interest in and comment on political and social events. Such immediate access to information by millions changed the nature of politics as it became much more difficult for governments to manage information and propaganda. Increased information access gives rise to increased social capital, thus the ability to access human and social resources increases.

Technological change has equally played a role in driving online education. Bach (2006) recounts three technological issues that changed communication possibilities: common standards of computer systems and programme language, the availability of affordable hardware in the mass consumer marker, and a move towards cooperation within the industry to allow free information technology intercommunication. These changes transformed computer usage, and with advancements in telephone technology, computers became interlinked creating vast networks. Institutions of Higher Education were among the first to participate in this technological revolution. They embraced email and text-based HTML language. Understanding the implications of image-based web browsers and the information delivery capabilities of search engines, educational institutions increased availability of software and hardware to staff and students. They encouraged the use of technology and the exploration of the new information highway.

While institutions of higher education were embracing new technology, an increased number of individuals were embracing higher education. The demand for higher education rose in developed countries. In the United States the number of individuals with higher education qualifications increased from 30% in 1991 to 38% in 2002 (Bach, pg. 10) . Similar increases occurred in the UK, France, Germany, and Japan. Governments began to grapple with how to provide funding for the increased enrollments. Despite the number of students enrolling, there has not been enough increase in staff resources to accommodate the number of students. Instructors have had to teach larger groups and the concern for quality education has prompted higher learning institutions to seek alternative education delivery methods. Institutions began to see how technology could play a role in promoting student self-directed learning.

One cannot discuss the factors that drive online learning without discussing globalization. Globalization refers to the situation where processes, cultures and products developed in one region of the world become exported to other countries to the extent that they begin to circumvent what occurs in the local place (Bach, pg. 19). Monetary economics and capitalism are viewed as dominant partners in the globalization process. Global markets are influential and are powerful determinants of social and educational life. The U.S. has been a dominant force in the world economy, and Internet communication is dominated by U.S. businesses and culture. Yet, many around the world believe it is important for other countries to balance the business-driven Internet networks. Since 2004 China has become a dominant user of the World Wide Web surpassing Japan (Bach, pg. 20). Sweden and Denmark strengthened their position to use the internet in business based transactions and overtook the ranking of the U.S. and the UK (Bach, pg. 20). Internet growth from 2000-2005 was higher in Europe than in North America (Bach, pg. 20). Rapid Internet growth is being seen in Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America. With the internet expanding to all corners of the world, students are likely to seek educational opportunities in places outside of their host nation. The desire to add experience and new language skills to their repertoire will place further demands on higher education thus confirming that no social entity has escaped the pressures of globalization.

Another factor that has driven online learning is the movement world-wide to organize the public sector using business models traditionally used in the private sector. It is perceived that public services will be more effective and efficient following this model. The change is known as the New Public Managerialism. It's affect oh higher education has been devolved budgets and unit costing. Particular attempts have been made to get money to follow students and research contracts in areas with immediate demand for their services. As a result, higher education has become more competitive. The areas or departments with less demand for enrollment are being closed. There is question as to the value this has for the overall public good. Short term reactions are often characteristic of business markets. The absence of an adequate balance of disciplines may be a detriment to overall public good in the long run. Other affects of NPM include connections between higher education funding and specific target groups with specific high output targets. Awarding funding based on performance has become a defining characteristic of modern higher education. Such characteristics are linked with globalization and mass higher education. More politicians are concerned with delivering higher education to the world population at reduced cost. They perceive technology as a solution but do not consider the complexities of the challenges.

Rapid technological changes have prompted higher education institutions to examine the technical challenges they face. Higher education institutions need to make good quality information and suitable information systems available. Institutions of higher learning cannot exist outside of the information revolution created by the internet. If higher education is to reap the benefits of the information revolution, adequate investment in technology systems needs to be considered if institutions are to remain at the forefront. Knowledge management and conversion of information into knowledge must also be considered. What knowledge is, how it is evolving, and how it should evolve are central questions to academic disciplines. Information technology must be used in a manner that adds value to the acquisition of knowledge. The technology must not precede the desire to seek knowledge.

Still other technical challenges that have affected online learning regard the need for staff and students to have IT and information skills. Students are arriving at institutions of higher learning with high IT skills and often adapt to new technologies faster than their teachers. Research tells us that it is important for staff of institutions of higher learning to be given opportunities to use technological skills. While some academic staff members have taught themselves how to use computers, others have opted to adhere to old ways. Learning IT for the first time is often stressful and perceived as more work for staff members, however failure to adequately train staff in IT skills translates to lack of support for IT in academics. This is one reason it is believed that the use of online resources and methods are not perceived as a useful strategy for dealing with the pressures of mass higher education (Bach, pg 30).

While the majority of students from developed nations have increased technological skills, there continues to be concerns about the ability of teachers to prepare students with the computer skills they need. In the U.S. the Web-Based Education commission determined that only one-third of school teachers were adequately trained to prepare children with these skills (Bach, pg. 29). Most of these students were from economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. Universities are dealing with these circumstances by introducing IT assessments and placing students in classes that foster basic IT skills. Some of these courses are taught via distance learning and/or online. This approach, known as self-directed learning, has become very popular and it makes the most of technology use.

The world has changed and society is attempting to change with it. The factors that have driven online learning do so perhaps the same way industrialization and other advancements drove changes in education at the turn of the 20th century. Instinctively, societies will seek ways to deal with social issues with what is currently at hand. In this sense, online learning can be a positive aspect of current and future education. The impact of online learning on education was reviewed by the Web-Based Education Commission in the U.S. in 2000. It cited the key strategic importance of information technology and online learning as a major method for learning that offered important transferable skills for the knowledge economy (Bach, pg 35). Other conclusions reached by the commission included the need for increased training for educators, and investment in technology to augment the growth of online learning. The future of online learning is promising. As higher education institutions seek to use technology as a means of reducing costs and to increase the flexibility of teaching, online learning will continue to be a viable form of education delivery.

It can be said that the entities that drive online learning are also the stakeholders in online learning. With large numbers of individuals expected to enroll in some form of online course, institutions both private and public have much to gain by providing online education as both an accompaniment to and alternative for regular mainstream classes. Students, instructors, and course designers alike all have a stake in the continued success of online learning programs, but the question that needs to be asked is, "What is at stake"? For students, perhaps it is a degree or an education to supplement income. For the instructor perhaps it's the endurance of the class. For the institution, it may possibly be the longevity and/or success of a program. Perhaps what is at stake is less about individuals and institutions and more about the transfer and acquisition of knowledge. What really needs to be known about online learning is, "Is it working"? Is there learning occurring in the online environment? This question is central to what is at stake for all parties involved.

Much of the success of online learning is related to the type of individual who becomes an online learner. Students enrolled in an online education course have much to gain from the online environment, however it comes with certain responsibilities that a traditional class may not have. Students undertaking learning in an online environment must be comfortable working and learning on a computer. They must be confident in resolving technology problems when they arise. They must by open to learning new software, or a set of online procedures just to access the course materials, or to chat with the faculty and others who are taking the course. Online learners need to work well alone. Perhaps what is most important is that online learners must be self-disciplined enough to follow the lessons on their own without peer pressure or pressure from the course instructor. They must be self-directed. One may never see the instructor in person, and they need to trust in the instructor enough to ask questions via e-mail when necessary. While these characteristics may not guarantee success in online learning, their presence will likely contribute to the student's acquisition of new information, information that is central to acquiring what is at stake.

If the acquisition of knowledge is what is at stake for students, then what is at stake for instructors and course designers? The online instructor is many things. Like most instructors in traditional learning environments, the online instructor is the supporter of the student, and the range of online activities that are supportive of student learning are facilitated by the instructor. Often the instructor is a counselor offering advice to help learners get the most out of their engagement in the online course. He or she is also an assessor and is concerned with providing feedback, grades, and validating the work of his or her students. In the role of course designer the instructor is responsible for ensuring that knowledge is presented in a manner that is understandable and transferable. He is concerned with engagement in production of new knowledge of relevance to the content areas being taught. He is concerned directly with facilitating the learners' growing understanding of course content, and with designing worthwhile online learning tasks that contribute to student understanding of that content. It is the instructor's responsibility to make technological choices that improve the environment available to learners. What can be said about the instructor/course designer is that he is faced with challenges unique to the online learning environment. In conjunction with other responsibilities, the online instructor must establish relationships with their students, determine their needs, and develop a teaching style which fits those needs and he must do this without ever knowing who he is teaching. Herein lays the distinction between online instructors and traditional instructors. The education of an individual he or she may never meet is at stake, and the online instructor must be able to connect with that individual despite this fact. His or her ability to do so may be what determines the success and subsequent longevity of an online course.

The final stakeholder in online learning is the institution that offers online programs. The first institutions to offer online learning did so just over 10 years ago (Allen, 2008). Institutions with the greatest concentration of online courses include public institutions, associate's level schools, and the very largest institutions (Allen, 2008). These institutions increasingly see technology and the Internet as helping them to adjust to a more interactive and dynamic method of learning. Moreover, they perceive online education as critical to their overall strategy. The primary reason many of these institutions choose to offer online programs is to expand their geographical reach. Surveys conducted by the Babson Survey Research Group at institutions offering online courses indicate that faculty and administrators believe online courses meet student needs for flexible access, and it is the best way to reach particular students (Allen, 2008). Perhaps the most significant finding of the survey is the acknowledgment of competition for online learners. If increased enrollments is what is at stake for these institutions, it is fair to say that online programs offered must be of the highest quality. Bach (2006) recommends the following guidelines be considered to assure quality online education:
Acquired content skills and knowledge should be:
relevant, transferable, specific for the purpose, and blend traditional education and applied technology skills.
Necessary learning skills are acquired for: Course/program completion and success, Quality assurance, Lifelong learning, and Self-directed learning management.
Completion takes the form of credit or credentials that are: Recognized by professional accreditation bodies and employers, Recognized by other educational institutions, Of the same value whether acquired through on-site or distance learning, Transferable within programmes and institutions, locally, nationally and internationally.
Return on investment of the learner's time, finances and energy meets expectations for: Accessibility as needed and when needed, Objective benefits and utility, Effectiveness: subjective achievement of personal goals, Eficiency: best use of resources, Customer satisfaction with all course/program elements.
With these specific elements addressed, it more likely that institutions will be able to attain their own objectives in offering online courses as well as help other stakeholders in achieving their objectives where online learning is concerned.

We have discussed online learning and those involved in online learning to a great extent. Now we will examine what makes online learning, online learning. It has been determined that online learning is more about the medium of communication that web technologies create than the tools used to create the environment. If we delve even further we see that online learning is comprised of networks of people learning anytime and anywhere. These networks or groups engage in self-study, and substantial, rapid asynchronous interactivity with and among each other. They are able to do this using computers and communications technology to access remote learning resources which include instructors and other learners, but they don't all have to be online at the same time. One of the key features of online learning is that it is asynchronous. Class members are typically not present at the same time or the same place. While chance may bring them together, they are generally spread out by space and time. The second characteristic is the concept of learning together. Online learning is about creating learning communities. Knowledge is constructed through meaningful interaction with others. Discussion and communication about the content is a continuous activity, rather than being limited to a scheduled discussion times once or twice a week. When a student has a thought or question, it can be communicated immediately, when the thought is new. Flexibility is another component of online learning. The concept of learning anytime, anywhere is unique to this medium. College and universities are embracing online learning due largely to the fact that they can expand enrollment beyond the geographic boundaries of the institution. Students in every part of the world can access various forms of distributed information at any given time.

Building on the concept of incorporating distributed resources in online learning, many online course instructors and designers are now utilizing web 2.0 tools to enhance the learning experience. How can web 2.0 tools be utilized to support online learning? We'll examine several web tools for potential use in online classes. Let's start with Wikis. A Wiki is a type of authoring website that allows for interactive content building that is dynamic. Wikis can be used for collaborative projects such as essays and reports. With Wikis students can share resources, course notes, and they can create a compilation of terms and concepts for study use. Wikis are free and there are several available such Wetpaint Wiki and Wikispaces. All that is required is a username and password. Another web 2.0 tool used in online learning is the Blog. Blog is short for weblog. Blogs are online journals and they display the most recent activity first. Students can incorporate text, images, and links to audio and video files. Readers may leave comments and interact with the Blogger. Like Wikis, Blogs are also free. Online instructors are using blogs to encourage engagement and interaction among student groups. Individual blogs are also used for journaling and thought writing. Some instructors are using blogs as a way to keep in regular contact with students. Another popular Web 2.0 being utilized in the online environment is Tagging. Tags are keywords used to describe a piece of data be it a web page, a digital photo, or another type of digital document. This kind of metadata helps describe an item and allows it to be found again by browsing or searching. Tagging can be used in the online learning environment to share resources. Sites such as del.icio.us and Technorati are two examples of tagging websites. A discussion of Web 2.0 tools cannot be complete with mentioning social networking websites. Social networking websites like Facebook work well as a means of communication for students and student groups. Universities are using Web 2.0 in order to reach out and engage both current and prospective students. In an online learning environment students can get to know other each other and engage one another more personally than with use of regular email and discussion tools. Class groups and groups within the class can be created to collaborate in countless ways on a variety of projects. Facebook is about connecting and the opportunity it presents for instructor-student connection and student-student connection is boundless. There are other Web 2.0 tools being integrated and utilized in online learning environments. It is impossible to mention all in this discussion. What is important to note about Web 2.0 tools is that they compliment the already collaborative nature of online learning. Web 2.0 tools can be used as distributed resources and they can further foster the co-operation and collaboration that exists in the online environment.



Section II

In this sections we will be focusing on answering two questions, how can different authoring tools be utilized to provide content and supportive materials for learners in online learning environments and what are the essential elements of a course management system (CMS) and how do various tools compare? We will answer these questions by looking at Manner in which authoring tools are used to provide content and supportive materials for online learners, Pedagogical Elements of CMS, and CMS compared to other tools.

There are several different ways to provide materials to online learners, in this part we will look at different Computer Based Instruction (CBI). The most common are CD-ROM based, Web based, and Course Management Systems (CMS). The principal difference between these types of CBI is the user interaction and what type of learning environment they create. It is important to keep in mind that though all three systems are different, they have fundamental characteristics in common. All CBIs have menus or toolbars for navigation, hypermedia linking, progress monitoring, a focus on instruction not technical features, multimedia to present information, importing and exporting files, editing functions, and multiple formats to get information across. (Dabbagh, p275-276)

Some of the first CBI used was CD-ROMs. CD-ROMS are different from LMS and Web-based in several key areas. CD-ROMS are first and foremost closed-systems; they do not allow the learner to go beyond what are on the disc and are often just instructional in nature. They are also very limiting since they often need to be installed and then can only be used on that system, which limits interaction with other students. They can also be very frustrating to new learners, since the learning curve is often very steep because the developer wanted to take full advantage of all features. Also, they do not have an Instructor to help you with any of the content; they were made by a developer, not the instructor. CD-ROMS are mostly used to help give instructions for things such as new computer programs, instructional products, and standardized tests. (Dabbagh, p278)

Once the Internet became more accessible, more and more web based CBIs came into existence. Web based CBIs had some advantages of CD-ROMs, but still have some limitations. Web based CBIs allowed the users to be in an open system where they could go beyond the class and explore topic further on the Internet. They also allow online learners to interact with other learners and work together on projects for a more constructionist learning experience. There are still limitations with web based instructions, again there is not instructor or learning tools specifically used. Also, though there is interaction between learners it is still limited and not fully developed. (Dabbagh, p279)

The most advanced and developed CBI available for online learners is the Course Management Systems or CMS. CMS are learning systems that are based on Internet technologies and allows the online learner to take full advantage of the tools available to them. Most CMS are based on constructivist learning and allow the learner to build on their existing knowledge and discover new knowledge during the class. The main advantage of CMS is the pedagogical elements that support online learners. Part of this advantage is that all effective CMS should have the following components, good instructors and campus environments, flexibility of participation, high level of activity and engagement of students, and lots of contact between instructors and students. (Dabbagh, p298)

CMS have many collaborative and communication tools that are in place to help online learners better understand and apply the knowledge of the class they are taking. For communication tools, there are several options. Most CMS classes offer chats, discussion boards, internal email, announcements, broadcasts, and forums for students to share information and communicate. Each one has a different purpose, for example the discussion board might be used to talk about the reading or an assignment while the email might be used to communicate with a group or the instructor. The instructor can also use the broadcasts and announcements to keep students up to date on learning objectives and share information. Collaborative tools are file exchange, electronic whiteboards, and screen sharing. Students may use these tools to work together with their group or other students on projects. (Dabbagh, p304-305)

Also a major part of CMS is the content creation and delivery tools available to the instructor to allow them to get content concepts across to their students. These tools are one reason CMS has an advantage over CD-ROMs and Web based learning. With CMS, students receive their instructions in the form of learning modules, course documents, and even student presentations. They are also offering students a variety of ways to present their work such as assignment submission, reflective journaling, and activity and assignment posting. These of course are just a few options given to CMS students to share their learning. (Dabbagh, p 306)

The biggest advantage of CMS learning is the fact that it supports so many different styles of learning tools. The tools available are collective, expository, exploratory, and help scaffold learning for each student. Things such as course maps and calendars, bookmarks, libraries, and several other tools help student organize their learning and get the most of online courses.

To help the instructor better reach all students, most CMS offer a wide variety of administration and assessment tools. Instructors can do anything from manage student information, set up enrollment options, and set the course duration and pacing. They can also use features such as an online grade book to track grades, give objective based assessments, and track student progress. All of this allows the instructor to better impact a students learning.

After looking more in-depth at the types of CBI, it is easy to see why CMS is fast becoming the authoring tool of choice. The main advantage CMS has is its ability to support different learning styles. While CD-ROMs and Web based learning is great for some learners, it does not adapt to every learner who might be using it. CMS can change and grow more readily to match the learners' needs and styles of learning. Also, CMS is much more engaging for the student. The features and tools of the CMS are designed with learner engagement in mind. CSM makes the student part of the course, not just and observer. This gives the learner more investment in the outcome of the course. With the CSM the student is also always in communication with other students, can easily talk to the instructor, and even work with other students on projects. The constant communication allows the learners to feel more like a community and not just a student watching a video.

Another advantage of CSM is the technology. CMS is very easy to use for the learners. They offer tools that make the course easy to follow and allow the student to spend more time on the actual course information and not worry about the technology. With the ease of use, CMS also offer functionality. Each part of the CSM has a purpose and an expected outcome. Granted different CMS have different tools and layouts, but the basic ease of use and functionality is present in all of them. Many CMS programs are also very user friendly, meaning any one can use them no matter what their computer skills. This allows many more people to take advantage of online learning.

CMS also has an advantage in supporting the users. Many CMS have technical support to ensure the program runs smoothly and does not disrupt the classes. They also offer administrative support such as online enrollment of students, online grading, and other features that allow the instructor and students to keep organized. Many CMS systems also offer instructional support to make the classes run more smoothly. Overall, CMS allows colleges to offer a wide variety of courses and degrees never before imagined. Now student who before did not have time to pursue degrees are able to advance their education when it is convenient for them.

Section III

Pedagogical Models of Online Learning

Pedagogical models are views used to describe teaching and learning. They are "cognitive models or theoretical constructs derived from learning theory that enable the implementation of specific instructional and learning strategies (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 164). More simply put, they are strategies that a teacher can use to design a course in a way that best fits the learning needs of their students. Although there are a multitude of models that can be used to design an online course, many researchers agree that this environment lends itself best to the adoption of a constructivist-based model. Constructivist models are those which incorporate a building block approach. In other words, the student uses previously attained knowledge and uses this experience to enhance later learning objectives and projects (Lorensten et. al., 2001).

Constructivist-based Models

Models that may be effectively incorporated into an online course include situated learning, problem-based learning, cognitive apprenticeships, cognitive flexibility hypertext, learning communities, computer-supported intentional learning environments, as well as simulations and similar exercises (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

Definitions

While the length of this paper prohibits an in-depth definition of the various constructivist-based models that can be used during online course design, it is helpful to have a general idea of methods that have been successfully integrated into a technology-based curriculum. Situated learning promotes authentic or realistic learning through activities that resemble real-world problem solving. Similarly, problem-based learning is based on using a problem and the method of arriving at its solution drives the learning objectives for the student. One of the biggest advantages of this method is that it easily creates an environment which is immediately student-centered (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Cognitive apprenticeships are based on the situated learning model, but, in essence, promotes the student to an apprentice of an acknowledge subject matter expert. The students are encouraged to solve problems using the guidance of their mentor. Although similar to a traditional apprenticeship, the focus of the cognitive apprenticeship is not the practice of manual skills, but rather the emphasis is placed on "cognitive skills and technology-enabled relection, articulation, and exploration" (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 173). Another model which focuses on cognitive skills is the cognitive flexibility hypertext or CFH. CFH, like many of the other constructivist models, emphasizes real-world problems and applications, but purposely makes them ill-structured and disorganized. The goal of these exercises are to "promote flexible knowledge acquisition that transfers to real-world contexts" (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 174). Learning communities are simply members of a community "united by a common purpose" and whom "engage in mutual activities, mediating common values, interests, and goals" (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 175). Online learning communities allow members separated by time and distance to participate in collaborative activities and share their experiences as they reach common learning objectives. One activity that a learning community can engage in is a computer-supported intentional learning environment or CSILE. CSILEs are designed to network learners in support of generative learning. Generative learning is the collaboration of individuals as they create interactions which allow them to scaffold material to increase the group's knowledge base (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Simulations and similar functions such as microworlds allow learners to test hypotheses in an electronically created situation. Students learn by doing. The advantage of simulations and microworlds is that they can create situations which would be impossible to recreate in real-life due to the costs or physical dangers involved. Simulations can be used to promote a variety of learning objectives through a virtual learning environment (VLE) (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005).

Designing the Learning Environment

Although any of the models described, and any combination thereof, above may be incorporated into designing an online learning environment, such design should be guided by several principles. Among these principles is that online learning is best achieved by one who is self-disciplined, self-regulated and directed, goal-oriented, and enjoys authentic learning opportunities (Lorentsen et. al., 2001). Also important is that online learning links individuals across create distances and affords the opportunity to interact with many people from different backgrounds, cultures, and languages. For this reason, the importance of taking advantage of collaboration should not be overlooked by the online learning environment student, facilitator, administrator, or designed.

Strategies That May Be Incorporated in Online Learning

No matter which pedagogical models the designer chooses to incorporate into their curriculum, several strategies have proven effective for the maximum transference and utilization of gained knowledge. In the back of any teacher's mind should be the stated objective of using the instructional system to "facilitate student learning" (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005, p. 203). In addition to situated (or authentic) learning and problem solving, other strategies for online learning may include exploration, collaboration and social negotiation, exploration, hypothesis generation, role-playing, articulation, reflection, multiple perspectives, and modeling.

Definitions and Application

Collaboration and social negotiation allows activities in which "communication with others is an essential part of the course" (Lorentsen et al., 2001, para. 3.2). In step with this definition is to create a virtual learning environment in which students can freely communicate their ideas and participate in activities which allows them to create collaborative works built on the team's ever expanding knowledge of the material. Exploration and exploratory activities are those where students can try out their hypotheses and see what effects they may have. This is, of course, very similar to the hypothesis generation strategy. The main difference between the two is that exploratory activities are generally prefaced by the teacher giving the student a little bit of information concerning the topic which they are about to study. During hypothesis generation, the student is assumed to have no knowledge about the subject and are given only a hypothesis to test for its validity (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Role-playing allows students to take ownership of their learning by assuming a profession that they may be training for in the real world. This strategy is effective when it comes to career development as the student is assessed on acquiring the knowledge necessary to be successful in the position they are training for (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). Articulation and reflection are two strategies that may be used hand-in-hand. When a student must articulate the reasons behind their decisions they are better able to critically think about methods which may or may not be effective (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). They may also dialogue with others in an attempt to further analyze their rationale. Reflection is usually used post-activity but is effective in that it allows students to brainstorm ways to make better decisions in the future. When articulation or reflection is done in a collaborative setting, it allows the learners to gain multiple perspectives and further expand their knowledge, ideas, and application of theirs and other's theories (Chen, 2007). Finally, modeling remains one of the oldest instructional strategies used. Learners are encouraged to imitate a known expert's work. By doing so, they are prepared for the promotion from apprentice of a skill to an expert in their own right (Dabbagh & Bannan-Ritland, 2005). As always, the online environment can link such experts to the student absent of the constraints of time and distance. In this way, a greater learning community that could be traditionally established may be realized.


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Resources

Allen, I. E. & Seaman, J. Staying the Course: Online Education in the United States 2008. Sloan Consortium http://www.sloan-c.org/publications/survey/pdf/staying_the_course.pdf


Bach, Shirley. Online Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. Buckingham, GBR: Open University Press, 2006
Http://site.ebrary.com/lib/asu/doc?id=10197006&ppg

Chen, Sue-Jen. (2007). Instructional design strategies for intensive online courses. Journal of Interactive Online Learning (6)1, 72-86.

Dabbagh, Nada & Bannan-Ritland, Brenda. Online Learning: Concepts, Strategies, and Applications. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. 2005

Hiltz, Starr Roxanne. Learning Together Online : Research on Asynchronous Learning. Mahwah, NJ, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Incorporated, 2004. p 5. http://site.ebrary.com/lib/asulib/Doc?id=10084603&ppg

Howard, Caroline(Editor). Distance Learning and University Effectiveness: Changing Educational Paradigms for Online Learning. Hershey, PA, USA: Idea Group Inc., 2003. p 58.
http://site.ebrary.com/lib/asulib/Doc?id=10044330&ppg


Maeroff, Gene I. Classroom of One: How Online Learning is Changing our Schools and Colleges. Gordonsville, VA, USA: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004
Http://site.ebrary.com/lib/asulib/Doc?id=10118444&ppg

Lorentsen, Annette et. al. (2001). Pedagogical models and online pedagogy. Retrieved April 4, 2009, from http://reve.eurospace.org