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Dietary Reference Intakes for vitamin D: justification for a review of the 1997 values. Yetley EA, Brulé D, Cheney MC, Davis CD, Esslinger KA, Fischer PW, Friedl KE, Greene-Finestone LS, Guenther PM, Klurfeld DM, L'abbe MR, McMurry KY, Starke-Reed PE, Trumbo PR. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jan 28. [Epub ahead of print] PMID: 1917674 doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.26903

Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in healthy adults.\nCashman KD, Hill TR, Lucey AJ, Taylor N, Seamans KM, Muldowney S, Fitzgerald AP, Flynn A, Barnes MS, Horigan G, Bonham MP, Duffy EM, Strain JJ, Wallace JM, Kiely M.\nAm J Clin Nutr. 2008 Dec;88(6):1535-42.\nPMID: 19064513 [

"Retinol-induced Intestinal Tumorigenesis in Min/+ Mice and Importance of Vitamin D Status. Hetland RB, Alexander J, Berg JP, Svendsen C, Paulsen JE. Anticancer Res. 2009 Nov;29(11):4353-60. PMID: 20032378 The effects of life-long dietary exposure, starting in utero, to high retinol, low vitamin D, or high retinol in combination with low vitamin D on intestinal tumorigenesis in Min/+ mice were investigated. In males, high retinol alone significantly increased the number (2.6-fold) and size (1.3-fold) of small intestinal tumours; in females no significant increase in tumour number or size was seen. In both genders, low vitamin D intake alone did not affect intestinal tumorigenesis. In males, intake of the combined high retinol/low vitamin D diet did not further increase the effects caused by high retinol alone. In females, however, the high retinol/low vitamin D-induced increase in tumour number (3.1-fold) and tumour size (1.5-fold) exceeded that of high retinol alone. In conclusion, a high dietary intake of retinol stimulated intestinal tumorigenesis in Min/+ mice. Furthermore, the results indicate a combined effect of high retinol and low vitamin D on tumorigenesis in females"

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Does nutritional intake differ between children with autism spectrum disorders and children with typical development? Herndon AC, Diguiseppi C, Johnson SL, Leiferman J, Reynolds A. J Autism Dev Disord. 2009 Feb;39(2):212-22. Epub 2008 Jul 4. PMID: 18600441 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-008-0606-2

"In 1995 my son received the devastating diagnosis of MS. Having been a research scientist for 30 years, I decided to plunge into the scientific literature for MS to determine the most likely factors which cause MS and to use this information to develop an effective therapy for my son. Notably, many people are having great success in halting or greatly slowing MS with nutritional strategies; many Testimonials are available. I am most pleased to report that my son remains in excellent health with no MS symptoms. I discovered abundant scientific evidence that indicates that various nutritional factors potentially play major roles in the onset and progression of MS. Strangely, this information was not being made available to persons with MS by doctors nor by established MS charities."

Estimation of the dietary requirement for vitamin D in free-living adults >=64 y of age. Cashman KD, Wallace JM, Horigan G, Hill TR, Barnes MS, Lucey AJ, Bonham MP, Taylor N, Duffy EM, Seamans K, Muldowney S, Fitzgerald AP, Flynn A, Strain JJ, Kiely M. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 May;89(5):1366-74. Epub 2009 Mar 18. PMID: 19297462 doi:10.3945/ajcn.2008.27334 Conclusion: To ensure that the vitamin D requirement is met by the vast majority (>97.5%) of adults aged ≥64 y during winter, between 7.9 and 42.8 µg vitamin D/d is required, depending on summer sun exposure and the threshold of adequacy of 25(OH)D. .

The vitamin D-antimicrobial peptide pathway and its role in protection against infection. Gombart AF. Future Microbiol. 2009 Nov;4:1151-65. PMID: 19895218 Vitamin D deficiency has been correlated with increased rates of infection. Since the early 19th century, both environmental (i.e., sunlight) and dietary sources (cod liver) of vitamin D have been identified as treatments for TB. The recent discovery that vitamin D induces antimicrobial peptide gene expression explains, in part, the 'antibiotic' effect of vitamin D and has greatly renewed interest in the ability of vitamin D to improve immune function. Subsequent work indicates that this regulation is biologically important for the response of the innate immune system to wounds and infection and that deficiency may lead to suboptimal responses toward bacterial and viral infections. The regulation of the cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide gene is a human/primate-specific adaptation and is not conserved in other mammals. The capacity of the vitamin D receptor to act as a high-affinity receptor for vitamin D and a low-affinity receptor for secondary bile acids and potentially other novel nutritional compounds suggests that the evolutionary selection to place the cathelicidin gene under control of the vitamin D receptor allows for its regulation under both endocrine and xenobiotic response systems. Future studies in both humans and humanized mouse models will elucidate the importance of this regulation and lead to the development of potential therapeutic applications

High-dose vitamin D3 supplementation in a cohort of breastfeeding mothers and their infants: a 6-month follow-up pilot study. Wagner CL, Hulsey TC, Fanning D, Ebeling M, Hollis BW. Breastfeed Med. 2006 Summer;1(2):59-70. PMID: 17661565 doi:10.1089/bfm.2006.1.59. Objective: To examine the effect of high-dose maternal vitamin D3 (vitD) supplementation on the nutritional vitD status of breastfeeding (BF) women and their infants compared with maternal and infant controls receiving 400 and 300 IU vitD/day, respectively. Design: Fully lactating women (n = 19) were enrolled at 1-month postpartum into a randomized- control pilot trial. Each mother received one of two treatments for a 6-month study period: 0 or 6000 IU vitD3 plus a prenatal vitamin containing 400 IU vitD3. The infants of mothers assigned to the control group received 300 IU vitD3/day; those infants of mothers in the high-dose group received 0 IU (placebo). Maternal serum and milk vitD and 25(OH)D were measured at baseline then monthly; infant serum vitD and 25(OH)D were measured at baseline, and months 4 and 7. Urinary calcium/creatinine ratios were measured monthly in both mothers and infants. Dietary and BF history and outdoor activity questionnaires were completed at each visit. Changes in skin pigmentation were measured by spectrophotometry. Data were analyzed using chi-square, t-test, and analysis of variance (ANOVA) on an intent-to-treat basis. Conclusion: With limited sun exposure, an intake of 400 IU/day vitamin D3 did not sustain circulating maternal 25(OH)D levels, and thus, supplied only extremely limited amounts of vitamin D to the nursing infant via breast milk. Infant levels achieved exclusively through maternal supplementation were equivalent to levels in infants who received oral vitamin D supplementation. Thus, a maternal intake of 6400 IU/day vitamin D elevated circulating 25(OH)D in both mother and nursing infant.

An evaluation of the vitamin D3 content in fish: Is the vitamin D content adequate to satisfy the dietary requirement for vitamin D? Lu Z, Chen TC, Zhang A, Persons KS, Kohn N, Berkowitz R, Martinello S, Holick MF. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007 Mar;103(3-5):642-4. Epub 2007 Jan 30. PMID: 17267210 doi: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.010 Surprisingly, farmed salmon had approximately 25% of the vitamin D content as wild salmon had. The vitamin D content in fish varied widely even within species. These data suggest that the tables that list the vitamin D content are out-of-date and need to be re-evaluated. Little is known about the effect of cooking on the vitamin D content in fish. When farm salmon was baked, almost all of the vitamin D content, i.e. 240 IU of vitamin D3 was recovered from 3.5 oz. of salmon. The initial concentration in the uncooked salmon was 245 IU of vitamin D3. However, when the salmon was fried in vegetable oil, approximately 50% (123 IU of vitamin D3 was recovered.) We also evaluated the vitamin D content in mackerel which is traditionally considered to be an excellent source of vitamin D3 because of its oily content. However, in the one sample that we tested, we only observed 24 IU of vitamin D3 in 3.5 oz.

Food chain as origin of vitamin D in fish D. Sunita Rao and N. Raghuramulu. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology Volume 114, Issue 1, May 1996, Pages 15-19 doi:10.1016/0300-9629(95)02024-1 Plankton, the chief food source of fish, was assessed as the possible dietary origin of vitamin D in fish. The presence of vitamin D compounds were examined in fresh water phytoplankton and zooplankton employing a series of chromatographic procedures. Abundant amounts of provitamins D and vitamins D (D2 and D3) were found in the fresh water plankton. The high amount of vitamin D observed may be due to exposure of plankton to sunlight because the plankton were caught during the summer month. Thus, plankton may be an important contributor to vitamin D in fish.

Investigating the links between muscle strength, sun exposure, dietary vitamin D intake and the vitamin D status of ambulatory older adults in South East Queensland Borradale, David (2008) QUT Thesis]

An evaluation of the vitamin D3 content in fish: Is the vitamin D content adequate to satisfy the dietary requirement for vitamin D?\nLu Z, Chen TC, Zhang A, Persons KS, Kohn N, Berkowitz R, Martinello S, Holick MF.\nJ Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 2007 Mar;103(3-5):642-4. Epub 2007 Jan 30.\nPMID: 17267210 \ndoi:10.1016/j.jsbmb.2006.12.010 \n

Seasonality of UV-radiation and vitamin D status at 69 degrees north. Brustad M, Edvardsen K, Wilsgaard T, Engelsen O, Aksnes L, Lund E. Photochem Photobiol Sci. 2007 Aug;6(8):903-8. Epub 2007 Jun 27. PMID: 17668121 The generally high dietary intakes of vitamin D, especially in winter, mask largely the effect of seasonal variation in UV-exposure, causing an atypical seasonal variation in vitamin D status. The UV-hour variable significantly predicted 25(OH)D levels in blood when adjusted for intakes and artificial UV-radiation exposure and sun holidays abroad.

How much vitamin D3 do the elderly need? Viljakainen HT, Palssa A, Kärkkäinen M, Jakobsen J, Lamberg-Allardt C. J Am Coll Nutr. 2006 Oct;25(5):429-35. PMID: 17031013 Conclusions: A clear dose response was noted in S-25-OHD to different doses of vitamin D3. The recommended dietary intake of 15 µg is adequate to maintain the S-25-OHD concentration around 40-55 nmol/L during winter, but if the optimal S-25-OHD is higher than that even higher vitamin D intakes are needed. Interestingly, subjects with lower vitamin D status at baseline responded more efficiently to supplementation than those with more adequate status

Vitamin D deficiency: a worldwide problem with health consequences. Holick MF, Chen TC. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Apr;87(4):1080S-6S. Review. PMID: 18400738 A reevaluation needs to take place of what the adequate intakes of vitamin D should be for children and adults. The literature over the past decade suggests that the Institute of Medicine recommendations in 1997 (83) are inadequate, and some experts including us suggest that both children and adults should take ≥800-1000 IU vitamin D/d from dietary and supplemental sources (4, 9, 77) when sunlight is unable to provide it. This recommendation, however, has not yet been embraced either by official government or pediatric organizations in the United States, Canada, or Europe for either children or adults.

Summary of evidence-based review on vitamin D efficacy and safety in relation to bone health. Cranney A, Weiler HA, O'Donnell S, Puil L. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008 Aug;88(2):513S-519S. Review. PMID: 18689393 We found inconsistent evidence of an association between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] concentration and bone mineral content in infants and fair evidence of an association with bone mineral content or density in older children and older adults. The evidence of an association between serum 25(OH)D concentration and some clinical outcomes (fractures, performance measures) in postmenopausal women and older men was inconsistent, and the evidence of an association with falls was fair. We found good evidence of a positive effect of consuming vitamin D-fortified foods on 25(OH)D concentrations. The evidence for a benefit of vitamin D on falls and fractures varied. We found fair evidence that adults tolerated vitamin D at doses above current dietary reference intake levels, but we had no data on the association between long-term harms and higher doses of vitamin D.

Low serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and secondary hyperparathyroidism in middle-aged white strict vegetarians. Lamberg-Allardt C, Kärkkäinen M, Seppänen R, Biström H. Am J Clin Nutr. 1993 Nov;58(5):684-9. PMID: 8237875 In conclusion, white strict vegetarians are at risk of vitamin D deficiency, at least in the winter, primarily because of a low dietary vitamin D intake, despite a normal sunlight exposure in summer. Low serum 25(OH)D concentrations are accompanied by high S-iPTH concentrations, which also are affected by a low calcium intake. The effect of these changes on bone health remains to be evaluated.

Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000 Sep;72(3):690-3. Erratum in: Am J Clin Nutr. 2003 May;77(5):1342. PMID: 10966885 Conclusions: Obesity-associated vitamin D insufficiency is likely due to the decreased bioavailability of vitamin D3 from cutaneous and dietary sources because of its deposition in body fat compartments.