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Beauregard, R. (2003). "Aberrant Cities: Urban Population Loss in the United States, 1820-1930." Urban Geography. 24 (8), 672-690. Abstract: "Our understanding of population loss from U.S. cities draws primarily from the fate of industrial centers in the decades following World War II. Quite numerous, those cities cast off residents at unprecedented and sustained rates. Prior to this time, few large cities had ended a decade smaller in population size than they began. In order to broaden and deepen our knowledge of why some cities and not others lose population, this paper analyzes cities that shed population in the 19th century. Using Census data and capsule stories developed from city biographies, the paper explores both contextuating and precipitating factors. These findings subsequently become the basis for reflecting anew on urban decline since the mid-20th century."