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Hydrogen as the Main Fuel of the Future Over the last decades hydrogen, (H2) has gained more and more attention as an environmentally friendly fuel and storage medium. Combustion of pure hydrogen produces only water as exhaust. Hydrocarbon and carbon oxide emissions can only come from motor oil in the combustion chamber. Nitrous oxide emissions result from the nitrogen content in the air and increase exponentially with the combustion temperature. By using H2 in fuel cells, practically no pollution occurs. In this respect, hydrogen offers emission levels that are much lower than existing and future standards.

Hydrogen is the most common of all elements in the universe.

The desire for a long-term transition to a hydrogen society is mainly based on the need to reduce polluting and climate-affecting emissions and the concern about depletion of fossil fuel resources. Today about 90 % of the world's energy consumption is covered by fossil fuels, and most of this comes from a limited number of regions in the world. Even if hydrogen will be used on a large scale in the future, there is still a need for an energy source to produce it. Renewable energy technology such as hydro electricity, wind, wave and solar power are in principle available, but are not yet mature for mass production and/or fully developed. 

How much will Hydrogen fuel cost? The U.S. Department of Energy's Hydrogen, Fuel Cells & Infrastructure Technologies Program is working to achieve the following goals: By 2005, the technology will be available to produce hydrogen at the pump for $3.00 per gallon gasoline equivalent, and DOE wants to validate this technology by 2008.  By 2010, the price goal is $1.50 per gallon of gasoline equivalent (untaxed) at the station. Even $3 a gallon would save most of us money, since FCVs will be two to three times more efficient than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles.  If all the goals are met, FCVs offer the promise of energy at $1 a gallon - or less! 

The elimination of pollution caused by fossil fuels - When hydrogen is used in a fuel cell to create power, it is a completely clean technology. The only byproduct is water. There are also no environmental dangers like oil spills to worry about with hydrogen. The elimination of greenhouse gases - If the hydrogen comes from the electrolysis of water, then hydrogen adds no greenhouse gases to the environment. There is a perfect cycle -- electrolysis produces hydrogen from water, and the hydrogen recombines with oxygen to create water and power in a fuel cell. The elimination of economic dependence - The elimination of oil means no dependence on the Middle East and its oil reserves. Distributed production - Hydrogen can be produced anywhere that you have electricity and water. People can even produce it in their homes with relatively simple technology.

Ocean waves are a tertiary form of solar energy, in that unequal heating of the Earth’s surface generates wind, and wind blowing over water generates waves. Despite the fact that nearly 75% of the Earth’s surface is covered with water, waves are a largely unexplored source of energy, compared with the progress that has been made in harnessing the sun and wind.

ocean waves is long considered substantive kinetic resource

Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of the sea. As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind speed just above the waves, there is an energy transfer from the wind to the waves.

The first known patent to utilize energy from ocean waves dates back to 1799 and was filed in Paris by Girard and his son.[12] An early application of wave power was a device constructed around 1910 by Bochaux-Praceique to light and power his house at Royan, near Bordeaux in France

Once the wave energy is captured at a wave source, power must be carried to the point of use or to a connection to the electrical grid by transmission power cables.[2

Tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and sun, and the rotation of the Earth. Near shore, water levels can vary up to 40 feet due to tides. Dam of the Tidal Power Plant on the Estuary of the Rance River, Bretagne, France Source: Stock photography (copyrighted) Tidal power is more predictable than wind energy and solar power. A large enough tidal range — 10 feet — is needed to produce tidal energy economically.

The United States has no tidal plants and only a few sites where tidal energy could be produced economically. France, England, Canada, and Russia have much more potential to use this type of energy.

Tidal turbines are basically wind turbines in the water that can be located anywhere there is strong tidal flow. Because water is about 800 times denser than air, tidal turbines have to be much sturdier than wind turbines. Tidal turbines are heavier and more expensive to build but capture more energy.

The United States has enough wind resources to generate electricity for every home and business in the nation. But not all areas are suitable for wind energy development.

Ocean energy Systems to harvest utility-scale electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered promising, especially on west-facing coasts with latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees:[74]

By "biofuels" on this page, I mean fuels for vehicles, such as "biodiesel" and "bioethanol" - although you can also use the term "biofuel" to cover any kind of fuel made from living materials or their waste.

How it works Biofuels are made from two main sources: Growing crops such as corn, sugar cane, soya or rapeseed; or from palm oil Growing algae

Biofuels are made from two main sources: Growing crops such as corn, sugar cane, soya or rapeseed; or from palm oil Growing algae

Energy from the Sun The sun has produced energy for billions of years.  Solar energy is the sun’s rays (solar radiation) that reach the Earth. This energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as heat and electricity.

Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells” change sunlight directly into electricity. Individual PV cells are grouped into panels and arrays of panels that can be used in a wide range of applications ranging from single small cells that charge calculator and watch batteries, to systems that power single homes, to large power plants covering many acres.

Solar energy systems do not produce air pollutants or carbon-dioxide

Geothermal Basics What Is Geothermal Energy? The word geothermal comes from the Greek words geo (earth) and therme (heat). So, geothermal energy is heat from within the Earth. We can recover this heat as steam or hot water and use it to heat buildings or generate electricity. Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source because the heat is continuously produced inside the Earth.

Geothermal energy is generated in the Earth's core. Temperatures hotter than the sun's surface are continuously produced inside the Earth by the slow decay of radioactive particles, a process that happens in all rocks. The Earth has a number of different layers:

Where Geothermal Energy is Found The ring of fire goes around the edges of the Pacific. The map shows that volcanic activity occurs around the Pacific rim.Source: National Energy Education Development Project (Public Domain) Naturally occurring large areas of hydrothermal resources are called geothermal reservoirs. Most geothermal reservoirs are deep underground with no visible clues showing above ground. But geothermal energy sometimes finds its way to the surface in the form of: Volcanoes and fumaroles (holes where volcanic gases are released) Hot springs Geysers

200,000 homes in the U.S. use some type of photovoltaic solar technology-and the market is expanding at a healthy 15% annually.

PV modules covering 0.3% of the land in the U.S., equivalent to one fourth of the area currently occupied by railroads, could provide all of the US's electricity needs.

Where Does Tidal Energy Come From? The gravitational force of the Earth stops the ocean from floating off into space, just like everything else. The Moon also has a very weak gravitational effect on the Earth, which is not normally noticable as far as falling teacups are concerned, but the ocean, which can flow around the globe to even out differences, is noticably affected.

The cost of producing ethanol varies with the cost of the feedstock used and the scale of production. Approximately 85 percent of ethanol production capacity in the United States relies on corn feedstock. The cost of producing ethanol from corn is estimated to be about $1.10 per gallon.

Because a gallon of ethanol contains less energy than a gallon of gasoline, the production cost of ethanol must be multiplied by a factor of 1.5 to make an energy-cost comparison with gasoline. This means that if ethanol costs $1.10 per gallon to produce, then the effective cost per gallon to equal the energy contained in a gallon of gasoline is $1.65. In contrast, the current wholesale price of gasoline is about 90 cents per gallon.

A major hurdle facing commercial biodiesel production is the cost of producing the fuel. Vegetable oil seed procurement, transport, storage and oil extraction accounts for at least 75 percent of the cost of producing biodiesel. The cost varies depending on the feedstock used. For example, based on the market price for industrial rapeseed grown in Washington and Idaho, the estimated cost of producing biodiesel is $2.56 per gallon of rapeseed methyl ester. Recent estimates put the cost of production in the range of $1.30 per gallon (using waste grease feedstock) to $2.00 or more per gallon using soybean oil.

Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), also sometimes called engineered geothermal systems, offer great potential for more than 100 GW of geothermal power which 40 times more than present geothermal power.

ultimately geothermal global resources amount to 50,000 times the energy of all oil and gas resources in the world.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) – Often categorized under the antiquated term‘Hot Dry Rock,’ EGS is thought by several experts to refer to any resource that requires artificial stimulation. This includes resources that have to be fully engineered, or ones that produce hydrothermal fluid, but sub-commercially. Regarding the latter, one expert states that, ‘As we go further, there might be projects that require more and more stimulation.’ Although EGS technology is still young and many aspects remain unproven, several projects are currently underway. If EGS technology proves commercially successful, it is expected to allow significantly increased extension of and production from existing fields, as well as utilization of geothermal energy in previously implausible locations.

Method Cents/kW-h Limitations and Externalities WindCurrently supplies approximately 1.4% of the global electricity demand. Wind is considered to be about 30% reliable. 4.0 - 6.0 Cents/kW-h Wind is currently the only cost-effective alternative energy method, but has a number of problems. Wind farms are highly subject to lightning strikes, have high mechanical fatigue failure, are limited in size by hub stress, do not function well, if at all, under conditions of heavy rain, icing conditions or very cold climates, and are noisy and cannot be insulated for sound reduction due to their size and subsequent loss of wind velocity and power. GeothermalCurrently supplies approximately 0.23% of the global electricity demand. Geothermal is considered 90-95% reliable. 4.5 - 30 Cents/kW-h New low temperature conversion of heat to electricity is likely to make geothermal substantially more plausible (more shallow drilling possible) and less expensive. Generally, the bigger the plant, the less the cost and cost also depends upon the depth to be drilled and the temperature at the depth. The higher the temperature, the lower the cost per kwh. Cost may also be affect by where the drilling is to take place as concerns distance from the grid and another factor may be the permeability of the rock. HydroCurrently supplies around 19.9% of the global electricity demand. Hydro is considered to be 60% reliable. 5.1 - 11.3 Cents/kW-h Hydro is currently the only source of renewable energy making substantive contributions to global energy demand. Hydro plants, however, can (obviously) only be built in a limited number of places, and can significantly damage aquatic ecosystems. SolarCurrently supplies approximately 0.8% of the global electricity demand. 15 - 30 Cents/kW-h Solar power has been expensive, but soon is expected to drop to as low as 3.5 cents/kW-h. Once the silicon shortage is remedied through alternative materials, a solar energy revolution is expected.

Tide 2 - 5 Cents/kW-h Blue Energy's tidal fence, engineered and ready for implementation, would provide a land bridge (road) while also generating electricity. Environmental impact is low. Tides are highly predictable.

Method Cents/kW-h Limitations and Externalities GasCurrently supplies around 15% of the global electricity demand. 3.9 - 4.4 Cents/kW-h Gas-fired plants and generally quicker and less expensive to build than coal or nuclear, but a relatively high percentage of the cost/KWh is derived from the cost of the fuel. Due to the current (and projected future) upwards trend in gas prices, there is uncertainty around the cost / KWh over the lifetime of plants. Gas burns more cleanly than coal, but the gas itself (largely methane) is a potent greenhouse gas. Some energy conversions to calculate your cost of natural gas per kwh. 100 cubic feet (CCF)~ 1 Therm = 100,000 btu ~ 29.3 kwh. CoalCurrently supplies around 38% of the global electricity demand. 4.8 - 5.5 Cents/kW-h Increasingly difficult to build new coal plants in the developed world, due to environmental requirements governing the plants. Growing concern about coal fired plants in the developing world (China, for instance, imposes less environmental overhead, and has large supplies of high sulphur content coal). The supply of coal is plentiful, but the coal generation method is perceived to make a larger contribution to air pollution than the rest of the methods combined.

"As the sun warms the Earth's surface, the atmosphere warms too. Some parts of the Earth receive direct rays from the sun all year and are always warm. Other places receive indirect rays, so the climate is colder. Warm air, which weighs less than cold air, rises. Then cool air moves in and replaces the rising warm air. This movement of air is what makes the wind blow."

Geothermal power plants, which use heat from deep inside the Earth to generate steam to make electricity. Geothermal heat pumps, which tap into heat close to the Earth's surface to heat water or provide heat for buildings.

At a geothermal power plant, wells are drilled 1 or 2 miles deep into the Earth to pump steam or hot water to the surface.

hot springs, geysers, or volcanic activity, because these are places where the Earth is particularly hot just below the surface.

It was used in the watermills along the shores of England during the Roman age and also used along the shores of France and Spain. This period was around 900 AD. The water rising from the tides was impounded in barrages and it was allowed to flow through waterwheels and other energy capturing devices thus capturing the energy and converting it into useful work used to grind grains and produce flour. The first tidal mill in the US was built in Salem, MA in 1635.