Serverless can also mean applications where some amount of server-side logic is still written by the application developer but unlike traditional architectures is run in stateless compute containers that are event-triggered, ephemeral (may only last for one invocation), and fully managed by a 3rd party.

‘Functions as a service

AWS Lambda is one of the most popular implementations of FaaS at present,

A good example is Auth0 - they started initially with BaaS ‘Authentication as a Service’, but with Auth0 Webtask they are entering the FaaS space.

a typical ecommerce app

a backend data-processing service

with zero administration.

FaaS offerings do not require coding to a specific framework or library.

Horizontal scaling is completely automatic, elastic, and managed by the provider

Functions in FaaS are triggered by event types defined by the provider.

from a deployment-unit point of view FaaS functions are stateless.

allowed the client direct access to a subset of our database

deleted the authentication logic in the original application and have replaced it with a third party BaaS service

The client is in fact well on its way to becoming a Single Page Application.

implement a FaaS function that responds to http requests via an API Gateway

port the search code from the Pet Store server to the Pet Store Search function

replaced a long lived consumer application with a FaaS function that runs within the event driven context

server applications - is a key difference when comparing with other modern architectural trends like containers and PaaS

the only code that needs to change when moving to FaaS is the ‘main method / startup’ code, in that it is deleted, and likely the specific code that is the top-level message handler (the ‘message listener interface’ implementation), but this might only be a change in method signature

With FaaS you need to write the function ahead of time to assume parallelism

Most providers also allow functions to be triggered as a response to inbound http requests, typically in some kind of API gateway

you should assume that for any given invocation of a function none of the in-process or host state that you create will be available to any subsequent invocation.

FaaS functions are either naturally stateless

certain classes of long lived task are not suited to FaaS functions without re-architecture

if you were writing a low-latency trading application you probably wouldn’t want to use FaaS systems at this time

An API Gateway is an HTTP server where routes / endpoints are defined in configuration and each route is associated with a FaaS function.

API Gateway will allow mapping from http request parameters to inputs arguments for the FaaS function

API Gateways may also perform authentication, input validation, response code mapping, etc.

the Serverless Framework makes working with API Gateway + Lambda significantly easier than using the first principles provided by AWS.

Apex - a project to ‘Build, deploy, and manage AWS Lambda functions with ease.'

'Serverless' to mean the union of a couple of other ideas - 'Backend as a Service' and 'Functions as a Service'.

models directory is meant to hold tests for your models

controllers directory is meant to hold tests for your controllers

integration directory is meant to hold tests that involve any number of controllers interacting

Fixtures are a way of organizing test data; they reside in the fixtures folder

The test_helper.rb file holds the default configuration for your tests

Fixtures allow you to populate your testing database with predefined data before your tests run

Fixtures are database independent written in YAML.

one file per model.

Each fixture is given a name followed by an indented list of colon-separated key/value pairs.

Keys which resemble YAML keywords such as 'yes' and 'no' are quoted so that the YAML Parser correctly interprets them.

define a reference node between two different fixtures.

ERB allows you to embed Ruby code within templates

The YAML fixture format is pre-processed with ERB when Rails loads fixtures.

Rails by default automatically loads all fixtures from the test/fixtures folder for your models and controllers test.

Fixtures are instances of Active Record.

access the object directly

test_helper.rb specifies the default configuration to run our tests. This is included with all the tests, so any methods added to this file are available to all your tests.

test with method names prefixed with test_.

An assertion is a line of code that evaluates an object (or expression) for expected results.

bin/rake db:test:prepare

Every test contains one or more assertions. Only when all the assertions are successful will the test pass.

rake test command

run a particular test method from the test case by running the test and providing the test method name.

The . (dot) above indicates a passing test. When a test fails you see an F; when a test throws an error you see an E in its place.

we first wrote a test which fails for a desired functionality, then we wrote some code which adds the functionality and finally we ensured that our test passes. This approach to software development is referred to as Test-Driven Development (TDD).

created

saved

updated

deleted

validated

loaded

use a macro-style class method to register them as callbacks

self.name = login.capitalize if name.blank?

registered to only fire on certain life cycle events

all the available Active Record callbacks,

after_initialize callback will be called whenever an Active Record object is instantiated, either by directly using new or when a record is loaded from the database

after_find callback will be called whenever Active Record loads a record from the database.

after_touch callback will be called whenever an Active Record object is touched.

belongs_to :company, touch: true

methods trigger callbacks

after_find callback is triggered by the following finder methods

after_initialize callback is triggered every time a new object of the class is initialized

As you start registering new callbacks for your models, they will be queued for execution

The whole callback chain is wrapped in a transaction

Callbacks work through model relationships, and can even be defined by them.

As with validations, we can also make the calling of a callback method conditional on the satisfaction of a given predicate

When using the :if option, the callback won't be executed if the predicate method returns false; when using the :unless option, the callback won't be executed if the predicate method returns true.

with a Symbol

with a String

with a Proc

using eval and hence needs to contain valid Ruby code.

mix both :if and :unless in the same callback declaration

needed to instantiate a new PictureFileCallbacks object, since we declared our callback as an instance method.

Active Record makes it possible to create classes that encapsulate the callback methods, so it becomes very easy to reuse them.

won't be necessary to instantiate

after_commit

after_rollback

very similar to the after_save callback except that they don't execute until after database changes have either been committed or rolled back

delete_picture_file_from_disk

after_commit

If anything raises an exception after the after_destroy callback is called and the transaction rolls back, the file will have been deleted and the model will be left in an inconsistent state

don't supply the :on option the callback will fire for every action.

The after_commit and after_rollback callbacks are guaranteed to be called for all models created, updated, or destroyed within a transaction block.

Associations are implemented using macro-style calls, so that you can declaratively add features to your models

A belongs_to association sets up a one-to-one connection with another model, such that each instance of the declaring model "belongs to" one instance of the other model.

belongs_to

A has_one association also sets up a one-to-one connection with another model, but with somewhat different semantics (and consequences).

belongs_to

A has_many association indicates a one-to-many connection with another model.

This association indicates that each instance of the model has zero or more instances of another model.

belongs_to

A has_many :through association is often used to set up a many-to-many connection with another model

This association indicates that the declaring model can be matched with zero or more instances of another model by proceeding through a third model.

through:

through:

The collection of join models can be managed via the API

new join models are created for newly associated objects, and if some are gone their rows are deleted.

The has_many :through association is also useful for setting up "shortcuts" through nested has_many associations

A has_one :through association sets up a one-to-one connection with another model. This association indicates that the declaring model can be matched with one instance of another model by proceeding through a third model.

A has_and_belongs_to_many association creates a direct many-to-many connection with another model, with no intervening model.

id: false

The has_one relationship says that one of something is yours

using t.references :supplier instead.

declare a many-to-many relationship is to use has_many :through. This makes the association indirectly, through a join model

set up a has_many :through relationship if you need to work with the relationship model as an independent entity

set up a has_and_belongs_to_many relationship (though you'll need to remember to create the joining table in the database).

use has_many :through if you need validations, callbacks, or extra attributes on the join model

With polymorphic associations, a model can belong to more than one other model, on a single association.

a polymorphic belongs_to declaration as setting up an interface that any other model can use.

In designing a data model, you will sometimes find a model that should have a relation to itself

add a references column to the model itself

All of the association methods are built around caching, which keeps the result of the most recent query available for further operations.

it is a bad idea to give an association a name that is already used for an instance method of ActiveRecord::Base. The association method would override the base method and break things.

belongs_to associations you need to create foreign keys

has_and_belongs_to_many associations you need to create the appropriate join table

So a join between customer and order models will give the default join table name of "customers_orders" because "c" outranks "o" in lexical ordering.

For example, one would expect the tables "paper_boxes" and "papers" to generate a join table name of "papers_paper_boxes" because of the length of the name "paper_boxes", but it in fact generates a join table name of "paper_boxes_papers" (because the underscore '' is lexicographically _less than 's' in common encodings).

id: false

pass id: false to create_table because that table does not represent a model

By default, associations look for objects only within the current module's scope.

will work fine, because both the Supplier and the Account class are defined within the same scope.

To associate a model with a model in a different namespace, you must specify the complete class name in your association declaration:

class_name

class_name

Active Record provides the :inverse_of option

Every association will attempt to automatically find the inverse association and set the :inverse_of option heuristically (based on the association name)

In database terms, this association says that this class contains the foreign key.

In all of these methods, association is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument to belongs_to.

(force_reload = false)

The association method returns the associated object, if any. If no associated object is found, it returns nil.

the cached version will be returned.

The association= method assigns an associated object to this object.

Behind the scenes, this means extracting the primary key from the associate object and setting this object's foreign key to the same value.

The build_association method returns a new object of the associated type

The create_association method returns a new object of the associated type

raises ActiveRecord::RecordInvalid if the record is invalid.

dependent

counter_cache

:autosave :class_name :counter_cache :dependent :foreign_key :inverse_of :polymorphic :touch :validate

finding the number of belonging objects more efficient.

Although the :counter_cache option is specified on the model that includes the belongs_to declaration, the actual column must be added to the associated model.

:destroy, when the object is destroyed, destroy will be called on its associated objects.

The :inverse_of option specifies the name of the has_many or has_one association that is the inverse of this association

set the :touch option to :true, then the updated_at or updated_on timestamp on the associated object will be set to the current time whenever this object is saved or destroyed

specify a particular timestamp attribute to update

If you set the :validate option to true, then associated objects will be validated whenever you save this object

where includes readonly select

make your code somewhat more efficient

no need to use includes for immediate associations

will be read-only when retrieved via the association

The select method lets you override the SQL SELECT clause that is used to retrieve data about the associated object

using the association.nil?

In database terms, this association says that the other class contains the foreign key.

the cached version will be returned.

:as :autosave :class_name :dependent :foreign_key :inverse_of :primary_key :source :source_type :through :validate

Setting the :as option indicates that this is a polymorphic association

:nullify causes the foreign key to be set to NULL. Callbacks are not executed.

It's necessary not to set or leave :nullify option for those associations that have NOT NULL database constraints.

The :source_type option specifies the source association type for a has_one :through association that proceeds through a polymorphic association.

The :source option specifies the source association name for a has_one :through association.

The :through option specifies a join model through which to perform the query

more efficient by including representatives in the association from suppliers to accounts

When you assign an object to a has_one association, that object is automatically saved (in order to update its foreign key).

If either of these saves fails due to validation errors, then the assignment statement returns false and the assignment itself is cancelled.

If the parent object (the one declaring the has_one association) is unsaved (that is, new_record? returns true) then the child objects are not saved.

If you want to assign an object to a has_one association without saving the object, use the association.build method

collection(force_reload = false) collection<<(object, ...) collection.delete(object, ...) collection.destroy(object, ...) collection=(objects) collection_singular_ids collection_singular_ids=(ids) collection.clear collection.empty? collection.size collection.find(...) collection.where(...) collection.exists?(...) collection.build(attributes = {}, ...) collection.create(attributes = {}) collection.create!(attributes = {})

In all of these methods, collection is replaced with the symbol passed as the first argument to has_many, and collection_singular is replaced with the singularized version of that symbol.

The collection<< method adds one or more objects to the collection by setting their foreign keys to the primary key of the calling model

The collection.delete method removes one or more objects from the collection by setting their foreign keys to NULL.

objects will be destroyed if they're associated with dependent: :destroy, and deleted if they're associated with dependent: :delete_all

The collection.destroy method removes one or more objects from the collection by running destroy on each object.

The collection_singular_ids method returns an array of the ids of the objects in the collection.

The collection_singular_ids= method makes the collection contain only the objects identified by the supplied primary key values, by adding and deleting as appropriate

The default strategy for has_many :through associations is delete_all, and for has_many associations is to set the foreign keys to NULL.

The collection.clear method removes all objects from the collection according to the strategy specified by the dependent option

uses the same syntax and options as ActiveRecord::Base.find

The collection.where method finds objects within the collection based on the conditions supplied but the objects are loaded lazily meaning that the database is queried only when the object(s) are accessed.

The collection.build method returns one or more new objects of the associated type. These objects will be instantiated from the passed attributes, and the link through their foreign key will be created, but the associated objects will not yet be saved.

The collection.create method returns a new object of the associated type. This object will be instantiated from the passed attributes, the link through its foreign key will be created, and, once it passes all of the validations specified on the associated model, the associated object will be saved.

:as :autosave :class_name :dependent :foreign_key :inverse_of :primary_key :source :source_type :through :validate

:nullify causes the foreign keys to be set to NULL. Callbacks are not executed.

where includes readonly select

:conditions :through :polymorphic :foreign_key

By convention, Rails assumes that the column used to hold the primary key of the association is id. You can override this and explicitly specify the primary key with the :primary_key option.

The :source option specifies the source association name for a has_many :through association.

You only need to use this option if the name of the source association cannot be automatically inferred from the association name.

The :source_type option specifies the source association type for a has_many :through association that proceeds through a polymorphic association.

The :through option specifies a join model through which to perform the query.

has_many :through associations provide a way to implement many-to-many relationships,

By default, this is true: associated objects will be validated when this object is saved.

where extending group includes limit offset order readonly select uniq

If you use a hash-style where option, then record creation via this association will be automatically scoped using the hash

The extending method specifies a named module to extend the association proxy.

Association extensions

The group method supplies an attribute name to group the result set by, using a GROUP BY clause in the finder SQL.

more efficient by including line items in the association from customers to orders

The limit method lets you restrict the total number of objects that will be fetched through an association.

The offset method lets you specify the starting offset for fetching objects via an association

The order method dictates the order in which associated objects will be received (in the syntax used by an SQL ORDER BY clause).

Use the distinct method to keep the collection free of duplicates.

mostly useful together with the :through option

-> { distinct }

.all.inspect

If you want to make sure that, upon insertion, all of the records in the persisted association are distinct (so that you can be sure that when you inspect the association that you will never find duplicate records), you should add a unique index on the table itself

Do not attempt to use include? to enforce distinctness in an association.

When you assign an object to a has_many association, that object is automatically saved (in order to update its foreign key).

If any of these saves fails due to validation errors, then the assignment statement returns false and the assignment itself is cancelled.

If the parent object (the one declaring the has_many association) is unsaved (that is, new_record? returns true) then the child objects are not saved when they are added

assign an object to a has_many association without saving the object, use the collection.build method

collection(force_reload = false) collection<<(object, ...) collection.delete(object, ...) collection.destroy(object, ...) collection=(objects) collection_singular_ids collection_singular_ids=(ids) collection.clear collection.empty? collection.size collection.find(...) collection.where(...) collection.exists?(...) collection.build(attributes = {}) collection.create(attributes = {}) collection.create!(attributes = {})

If the join table for a has_and_belongs_to_many association has additional columns beyond the two foreign keys, these columns will be added as attributes to records retrieved via that association.

If you require this sort of complex behavior on the table that joins two models in a many-to-many relationship, you should use a has_many :through association instead of has_and_belongs_to_many.

The collection.delete method removes one or more objects from the collection by deleting records in the join table

The collection.destroy method removes one or more objects from the collection by running destroy on each record in the join table, including running callbacks.

The collection.clear method removes every object from the collection by deleting the rows from the joining table.

The collection.find method finds objects within the collection. It uses the same syntax and options as ActiveRecord::Base.find.

The collection.where method finds objects within the collection based on the conditions supplied but the objects are loaded lazily meaning that the database is queried only when the object(s) are accessed.

The collection.exists? method checks whether an object meeting the supplied conditions exists in the collection.

The collection.build method returns a new object of the associated type.

The collection.create method returns a new object of the associated type.

it passes all of the validations specified on the associated model

:association_foreign_key :autosave :class_name :foreign_key :join_table :validate

The :foreign_key and :association_foreign_key options are useful when setting up a many-to-many self-join.

Rails assumes that the column in the join table used to hold the foreign key pointing to the other model is the name of that model with the suffix _id added.

If you set the :autosave option to true, Rails will save any loaded members and destroy members that are marked for destruction whenever you save the parent object.

By convention, Rails assumes that the column in the join table used to hold the foreign key pointing to this model is the name of this model with the suffix _id added.

By default, this is true: associated objects will be validated when this object is saved.

where extending group includes limit offset order readonly select uniq

set conditions via a hash

In this case, using @parts.assemblies.create or @parts.assemblies.build will create orders where the factory column has the value "Seattle"

using a GROUP BY clause in the finder SQL.

Use the uniq method to remove duplicates from the collection.

assign an object to a has_and_belongs_to_many association, that object is automatically saved (in order to update the join table).

If any of these saves fails due to validation errors, then the assignment statement returns false and the assignment itself is cancelled.

If the parent object (the one declaring the has_and_belongs_to_many association) is unsaved (that is, new_record? returns true) then the child objects are not saved when they are added.

If you want to assign an object to a has_and_belongs_to_many association without saving the object, use the collection.build method.

Normal callbacks hook into the life cycle of Active Record objects, allowing you to work with those objects at various points

define association callbacks by adding options to the association declaration

stack callbacks on a single event by passing them as an array

If a before_add callback throws an exception, the object does not get added to the collection.

if a before_remove callback throws an exception, the object does not get removed from the collection

extend these objects through anonymous modules, adding new finders, creators, or other methods.

order_number

use a named extension module

proxy_association.owner returns the object that the association is a part of.

native database constraints

client-side validations

controller-level validations

Database constraints and/or stored procedures make the validation mechanisms database-dependent and can make testing and maintenance more difficult

Client-side validations can be useful, but are generally unreliable

combined with other techniques, client-side validation can be a convenient way to provide users with immediate feedback

it's a good idea to keep your controllers skinny

Active Record uses the new_record? instance method to determine whether an object is already in the database or not.

Creating and saving a new record will send an SQL INSERT operation to the database. Updating an existing record will send an SQL UPDATE operation instead. Validations are typically run before these commands are sent to the database

The bang versions (e.g. save!) raise an exception if the record is invalid.

save and update return false

create just returns the object

be used with caution

update_all

save also has the ability to skip validations if passed validate: false as argument.

valid? triggers your validations and returns true if no errors

After Active Record has performed validations, any errors found can be accessed through the errors.messages instance method

By definition, an object is valid if this collection is empty after running validations.

validations are not run when using new.

invalid? is simply the inverse of valid?.

To verify whether or not a particular attribute of an object is valid, you can use errors[:attribute]. I

Every time a validation fails, an error message is added to the object's errors collection,

All of them accept the :on and :message options, which define when the validation should be run and what message should be added to the errors collection if it fails, respectively.

validates that a checkbox on the user interface was checked when a form was submitted.

agree to your application's terms of service

use this helper when your model has associations with other models and they also need to be validated

valid? will be called upon each one of the associated objects.

work with all of the association types

Don't use validates_associated on both ends of your associations.

each associated object will contain its own errors collection

errors do not bubble up to the calling model

when you have two text fields that should receive exactly the same content

This validation creates a virtual attribute whose name is the name of the field that has to be confirmed with "_confirmation" appended.

To require confirmation, make sure to add a presence check for the confirmation attribute

this set can be any enumerable object.

The exclusion helper has an option :in that receives the set of values that will not be accepted for the validated attributes.

:in option has an alias called :within

validates the attributes' values by testing whether they match a given regular expression, which is specified using the :with option.

attribute does not match the regular expression by using the :without option.

validates that the attributes' values are included in a given set

:in option has an alias called :within

specify length constraints

:minimum

:maximum

:in (or :within)

:is - The attribute length must be equal to the given value.

:wrong_length, :too_long, and :too_short options and %{count} as a placeholder for the number corresponding to the length constraint being used.

split the value in a different way using the :tokenizer option:

validates that your attributes have only numeric values

By default, it will match an optional sign followed by an integral or floating point number.

set :only_integer to true.

allows a trailing newline character.

:greater_than

:greater_than_or_equal_to

:equal_to

:less_than

:less_than_or_equal_to

:odd - Specifies the value must be an odd number if set to true.

:even - Specifies the value must be an even number if set to true.

validates that the specified attributes are not empty

if the value is either nil or a blank string

validate associated records whose presence is required, you must specify the :inverse_of option for the association

an association is present, you'll need to test whether the associated object itself is present, and not the foreign key used to map the association

false.blank? is true

ensure the value will NOT be nil

validates that the specified attributes are absent

not either nil or a blank string

be sure that an association is absent

false.present? is false

validate the absence of a boolean field you should use validates :field_name, exclusion: { in: [true, false] }.

validates that the attribute's value is unique right before the object gets saved

a :scope option that you can use to specify other attributes that are used to limit the uniqueness check

a :case_sensitive option that you can use to define whether the uniqueness constraint will be case sensitive or not.

There is no default error message for validates_with.

To implement the validate method, you must have a record parameter defined, which is the record to be validated.

passes the record to a separate class for validation

validates attributes against a block

The block receives the record, the attribute's name and the attribute's value. You can do anything you like to check for valid data within the block

will let validation pass if the attribute's value is blank?, like nil or an empty string

the :message option lets you specify the message that will be added to the errors collection when validation fails

skips the validation when the value being validated is nil

specify when the validation should happen

raise ActiveModel::StrictValidationFailed when the object is invalid

You can do that by using the :if and :unless options, which can take a symbol, a string, a Proc or an Array.

use the :if option when you want to specify when the validation should happen

using eval and needs to contain valid Ruby code.

Using a Proc object gives you the ability to write an inline condition instead of a separate method

have multiple validations use one condition, it can be easily achieved using with_options.

implement a validate method which takes a record as an argument and performs the validation on it

validates_with method

implement a validate_each method which takes three arguments: record, attribute, and value

combine standard validations with your own custom validators.

:expiration_date_cannot_be_in_the_past,    :discount_cannot_be_greater_than_total_value