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Ditches were dug either side of the road to allow for drainage. Roman roads tended to be built higher than the level of earth around them – this, again, helped drainage.

A good road system also made it easier for the emperors to control their empire as messages and orders could be sent quickly

bulk of the actual building was done by Roman soldiers. By doing this, the Romans could rely on the gained expertise of the soldiers. The authorities could also rely on the fact that the soldiers would do the best they could for Rome – by building excellent roads.

The roads were built so that two of these wagons could pass on both sides of the roads.

the Britons did not use their roads. Not only roads were not used, but villas, baths and other buildings were shunned by the Britons because of their association with the Romans.

Rome's naturally defenses made the city almost immune to attack,

The soil and the mild climate helped the Romans grow surplus olives and grain. Reliable food production allowed the population to grow, and the trade in olives and olive oil helped the Roman economy expand.

the republic had virtually no naval forces. To facilitate their invasion of Carthage, the Romans had to build 150 ships from scratch

lack of viable ports.

Rome's geography forced the Romans to rely on overland transportation much more than other empires. The absence of ports and small number of major rivers lead the Romans to build a massive network of roads.

80,000 kilometers of roadways,

transportation system made the city of Rome the critical trade hub

suited for agriculture

volcanic ash made the soil near Rome some of the best in all of Europe. Rome attracted new settlers during its rise to power due to its agricultural potentia

The Roman population grew quickly, thanks to surplus production of grains, olives and other crops. The extra population later helped Rome's military expansion by providing a large supply of troops.

establish trade ties with other Mediterranean powers, enhancing the city's economic might.

position at the center of the Mediterranean Sea. As Smith notes, the Italian Peninsula is only 50 miles from Greece, while Sicily is less than 100 miles from Africa. Rome is also a short voyage by boat from Spain and only a few days' journey to France on horseback. Its central location made Rome a desirable trading post even before the city's rise to power. This centrality later helped the Romans administer their empire effectively by reducing communication times.

Several geographic advantages helped Rome to grow and ultimately dominate the known world.

Although

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age of 20!!!.

Caesar became governor of the province of Gaul.

Caesar announced that he was going to return to Rome and run for consul again.

give up the command of his army first.

In 46 BC Caesar returned to Rome.

most powerful man in the world.

The Senate made him dictator for life and he ruled like a king.

changed the calendar to the now famous Julian calendar with 365 days and a leap year.

Caesar was too powerful.

He was stabbed 23 times.

Caesar Augustus.

While in Egypt he fell in love with the queen of Egypt, Cleopatra. He helped her to become pharaoh and had a child named Caesarion with her.

aristocrats.

punishment from God for sins committed and the only way to cure someone was to pray for their forgiveness

using herbal remedies and potions were seen as witchcraft and outlawed by the church

The Attack: "The Senate rose in respect for his position when they saw him entering. Those who were to have part in the plot stood near him. Right next to him went Tillius Cimber, whose brother had been exiled by Caesar. Under pretext of a humble request on behalf of this brother, Cimber approached and grasped the mantle of his toga, seeming to want to make a more positive move with his hands upon Caesar. Caesar wanted to get up and use his hands, but was prevented by Cimber and became exceedingly annoyed. That was the moment for the men to set to work. All quickly unsheathed their daggers and rushed at him. First Servilius Casca struck him with the point of the blade on the left shoulder a little above the collar-bone. He had been aiming for that, but in the excitement he missed. Caesar rose to defend himself, and in the uproar Casca shouted out in Greek to his brother. The latter heard him and drove his sword into the ribs. After a moment, Cassius made a slash at his face, and Decimus Brutus pierced him in the side. While Cassius Longinus was trying to give him another blow he missed and struck Marcus Brutus on the hand. Minucius also hit out at Caesar and hit Rubrius in the thigh. They were just like men doing battle against him. Under the mass of wounds, he fell at the foot of Pompey's statue. Everyone wanted to seem to have had some part in the murder, and there was not one of them who failed to strike his body as it lay there, until, wounded thirty-five times, he breathed his last. "

“Whereupon the Tartars (Mongols), worn out by this pestilential disease, and falling on all sides as if thunderstruck, and seeing that they were perishing hopelessly, ordered the corpses to be placed upon their engines and thrown into the city of Kaffa. Accordingly were the bodies of the dead hurled over the walls, so that the Christians were not able to hide or protect themselves from this danger, although they carried away as many as possible and threw them into the sea.”

summer of 1347, the Italian merchants headed to their ships and the fled the city of Kaffa. En route, however, the Italians stopped at Constantinople, inadvertently infecting the city. Thousands of people were killed, including Andronikos, the son of the Greek Emperor, John VI Cantacuzenos. Those who were able fled the city, many not realising that they were already infected. By the autumn, the western coast of Asia Minor was experiencing the full force of the Black Death and it would not be long before returned home to infect their native Italy.

The geographical features of ancient Greece contributed to its advantage and disadvantage.

Greece is a strategic location for empire building because it served as the crossroads between Africa, Asia and Europe

climate, the mountains and the seas

temperate, making it comfortable to the people to be outside of their homes almost every year. This allowed them to engage in outdoor life within their city-states. They were able to interact with each other which enabled them to organize outdoor activities such as athletic competitions, public gatherings, entertainment and art shows, and meetings, which facilitate to the development of a rich and distinct Greek culture.

mountains

Almost 70 to 80 percent of Greece is covered and dominated with mountains

advantage of the mountains is that they contributed to the preservation of the purity of Greek culture.

were secluded to their area resulting to rare interactions with other cultures.

served as a natural barrier which acted like walls separating different communities.

hindered communication among communities and slowed down the introduction of new ideas and technology.

unified system of government

polis or the city-state

democratic government works better in smaller states

protection and security to the inhabitants.

disadvantage of this geographical feature is that only few lands were dedicated to farming

isadvantage is the the rocky lands and poor soil which are not suitable for the domestication of plants.

olives and grapes

domesticated sheeps and cattles as an alternative to farming

Having been surrounded by three major bodies of water served as an advantage because it allowed early Greeks to travel and trade

Greece to major trade routes allowed the prosperity in maritime commerce (

became fishers, sailors and merchants

excelled in ship buildings and voyaging because of their knowledge about seas around them

Greeks to depend heavily on trade

could not grow through trading

olive oil, wine, wool and pottery with grains and other natural resources, which had a limited supply during that time

trade encouraged cultural diffusion

Hellenistic culture