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What's important about scientific reasoning is not what all the different modes of reasoning are called, but the fact that the process relies on careful, logical consideration of how evidence supports or does not support an idea, of how different scientific ideas are related to one another, and of what sorts of things we can expect to observe if a particular idea is true.

In fact, there are many ways to test almost any scientific idea; experimentation is only one approach.

the rigor of a scientific study has much more to do with the investigator's approach than with the discipline.

A 2005 survey of scientists at top research universities found that more than 48% had a religious affiliation and that more than 75% believed that religions convey important truths.

While it's true that all scientific ideas are subject to change if warranted by the evidence, many scientific ideas (e.g., evolutionary theory, foundational ideas in chemistry) are supported by many lines of evidence, are extremely reliable, and are unlikely to change.

Hypotheses are explanations that are limited in scope, applying to fairly narrow range of phenomena. The term law is sometimes used to refer to an idea about how observable phenomena are related — but the term is also used in other ways within science. Theories are deep explanations that apply to a broad range of phenomena and that may integrate many hypotheses and laws.

Because science deals only with natural phenomena and explanations, it cannot support or contradict the existence of supernatural entities — like God.

at the cutting edge of scientific research — areas of knowledge that are difficult to represent in introductory textbooks — scientific ideas may change rapidly as scientists test out many different possible explanations trying to figure out which are the most accurate.

Scientific research also involves creative problem-solving, communicating with others, logical reasoning, and many other skills that might or might not be a part of every science class. Second, science encompasses a remarkably broad set of activities.

Douglass realized that its classrooms were generally a better fit for the verbal-emotive, sit-still, take-notes, listen-carefully, multitasking girl. Teachers tended to view the natural assets that boys bring to learning—impulsivity, single-task focus, spatial-kinesthetic learning, and physical aggression—as problems. By altering strategies to accommodate these more typically male assets, Douglass helped its students succeed

Increasing Experiential and Kinesthetic Learning Opportunities

Supporting Literacy Through Spatial-Visual Representations

Letting Boys Choose Topics That Appeal to Them

Helping Boys with Homework

Offering Single-Gender Learning Environments

for many boys these disruptions simply reflect male brains trying to stay awake in a classroom that is not well suited for their kind of learning.

Seeking Out Male Role Models

Making Reading and Writing Purposeful

Researchers have identified more than 100 structural differences between the male and female brain. These differences are both genetic and socialized

Verbal/spatial differences. Boys' brains generally have more cortical areas dedicated to spatial-mechanical functioning than girls' brains

P cells and M cells. The male visual system (optical and neural) relies more heavily on type M ganglion cells, which detect movement. Girls generally have more type P ganglion cells, which are sensitive to color variety and other fine sensory activity

Frontal lobe development. A girl's prefrontal cortex is generally more active than a boy's, and her frontal lobe generally develops at an earlier age (Rich, 2000). These are the decision-making areas of the brain (as well as the reading/writing/word production areas).

Neural rest states. Boys' brains go into what neurologists call a rest state many times each day.

o bring about these improvements, teachers need to ask themselves some key questions: As teachers, do we fully understand the challenges that boys face in education today? Do we realize that there is a scientific basis for innovating on behalf of both girls and boys as disaggregated groups? Does my school incorporate boy-friendly and girl-friendly learning innovations in full knowledge of how essential they are in accommodating the structural and chemical gender differences built into the human brain? Do the educators in my school realize that many behaviors typical of either boys or girls are neurologically based?

Cross talk between hemispheres. Structural differences in girls' brains generate more cross talk between hemispheres, leading to better multitasking.

Boys also take more time than girls to transition between tasks (Havers, 1995). They tend to become more irritable (and to underperform in learning and classroom behavior) when teachers move them continually between tasks.

Natural aggression. For a number of neural and chemical reasons, boys are more naturally aggressive and competitive than girls are

With less oxytocin in the male neural and physiological system, boys tend toward greater impulsivity, more aggression, and less reliance on bonding malleability (Taylor, 2002). They have less desire than girls to comply to please others, including teachers.