EF Science

Brain training products are becoming increasingly popular for children and adolescents. Despite the marketing aimed at their use in the general population, these products may provide more benefits for specific neurologically impaired populations. A review of Brain Training (BT) products analyzing their efficacy while considering the methodological limitations of supporting research is required for practical applications.

Overall, few independent studies have found far transfer and long-term effects. The majority of independent results found only near transfer. There is a lack of double-blind randomized trials which include an active control group as well as a passive control to properly control for contaminant variables. Based on our results, Brain Training Programs as commercially available products are not as effective as first expected or as they promise in their advertisements.

Adolescence is a time of considerable development at the level of behaviour, cognition and the brain. This article reviews histological and brain imaging studies that have demonstrated specific changes in neural architecture during puberty and adolescence, outlining trajectories of grey and white matter development. The implications of brain development for executive functions and social cognition during puberty and adolescence are discussed. Changes at the level of the brain and cognition may map onto behaviours commonly associated with adolescence. Finally, possible applications for education and social policy are briefly considered.

Recent MRI studies indicate that the time at which the brain reaches maturity may be much later than the end of adolescence. One such study of participants aged between 7 and 30 revealed that the loss of grey matter in the frontal cortex accelerated during adulthood between the early 20s and up to the age of 30 (Sowell et al., 2001).

The non‐linear decrease in grey matter was concomitant with a linear increase in white matter, consistent with earlier MRI data and with post‐mortem studies.

Sleep problems in children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder are treated with a variety of medications, many off label for sleep and unstudied for safety and effectiveness in children, a study of Medicaid prescriptions has found.

The aim of this study is to investigate motor and cognitive effects of a 9-week exercise intervention in children aged 6–10 years.

It is hypothesised that all groups gain motor and cognitive effects, but highest benefits are expected for the combination of automatised coordination exercises with mental tasks.

Abstract 1 Introduction 2 Methods and analysis 2.1 Study design and setting 2.2 Population 2.3 Recruitment 2.4 Screening and consent procedures 2.5 Study interventions 2.6 Safety considerations 2.7 Study assessments 2.7.1 Screening assessments 2.7.2 Primary outcomes 2.7.3 Secondary outcomes 2.7.4 Posited mediators 2.7.5 Covariates and moderators 2.8 Statistical analyses 2.9 Quality control and monitoring 2.10 Ethics and dissemination 3 Discussion 3.1 Strengths and limitations 4 Conclusion Author contributions References

These data indicate enhanced neural responses during the detection and resolution of conflicting stimuli. Although previous research has supported the individual beneficial effects of aerobic exercise and meditation for depression, these findings indicate that a combination of the two may be particularly effective in increasing cognitive control processes and decreasing ruminative thought patterns.

Childhood ADHD cases scored from 3 to 5 grade equivalents lower on all academic tests compared to referents, with mean (SD) standard scores of 95.7 (8.4) versus 101.8 (8.1) in Basic Reading; 95.0 (9.3) versus 101.9 (8.5) in Letter-Word Identification; 98.2 (8.6) versus 103.2 (9.2) in Passage Comprehension; 95.7 (9.1) versus 100.9 (9.0) in Word Attack; and 87.8 (12.9) versus 98.0 (12.0) in Arithmetic

This is the first prospective, population-based study of adult academic outcomes of childhood ADHD. Our data provide evidence that childhood onset ADHD is associated with long term underachievement in reading and math that may negatively impact ultimate educational attainment and occupational functioning in adulthood.

Physical activity (PA) is known to maintain and improve neurocognitive health. However, there is still a poor understanding of the mechanisms by which PA exerts its effects on the brain and cognition in humans.

Consistent with the cross-sectional work, RCTs also support the argument that changes in brain structure and function may be mechanisms underlying the relationship between PA and cognitive performance. Specifically, the majority of RCTs have reported changes in brain structure or function, as well as in cognition following the exercise intervention. However, of the 13 RCTs including both cognitive and neuroimaging measures conducted to date, only 1 has used a statistical mediation model. Thus, it has not been possible in the majority of RCTs to rule out the possibility that another, unmeasured factor that covaries with both the treatment and outcome is underlying the intervention effects observed in the brain and/or cognitive performance.

Along these lines, if PA is thought to enhance cognition by improving brain structure and function, then eliminating PA should have the opposite effect. Examination of the effects of PA cessation has been comparatively unexplored to date. However, there have been two recent studies on this topic that support this idea (Alfini et al., 2016; Thomas et al., 2016). Alfini et al. (2016), showed that cortical and hippocampal resting brain perfusion decreases following PA cessation after just 10 days in older adult athletes. In addition, Thomas et al. (2016) found that hippocampal volume gains following an exercise intervention in young-middle aged adults, were abolished following 2-weeks of exercise cessation. These results are interesting and important for the field because they support PA as the causal variable in mechanistic models (i.e., removing PA reverses the brain effects attributed to this behavior).

Glossary Cognitive function: ↑ The way we process and think about the world around us. Cognitive functions include attention, memory, and ability to solve problems. Neuroplasticity: ↑ Changes that happen in the brain as the result of our experiences. Alzheimer’s disease: ↑ A disease that affects the brain in older age. The main characteristic of Alzheimer’s disease is a problem with cognitive functions, especially memory.

Ultimately, the rationale for an early start to a successful and healthy education goes beyond the classroom—the goal is to educate the next generations about the benefits of sustained motor activities across the lifespan.

The recent growth in the number of people affected by cognitive disorders has underlined the central role our brains play in daily life. Once our sophisticated neural machinery is impaired, we come to realize how important normal cognitive functioning really is. Together with growing evidence for the malleable property of the brain, this heightened awareness drives the current trend of research based on behavioral training programs that can remedy or alleviate cognitive disorders

Childhood is an ideal period to implement behavioral interventions aimed at cognitive enhancement, because neural plasticity at this age is the norm rather than the exception. This allows larger behaviorally induced cognitive improvement (Green et al. 2012; Steiner et al. 2014), and ultimately the identification and remediation of limitations before they spark off more sizeable difficulties (Franceschini et al. 2013).