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A Gardner

In which the professor expresses her frustration with the perennial bashing of her occu... - 76 views

scientopia.org/...nial-bashing-of-her-occupation

professor frustration occupation adventures ethics blog

shared by A Gardner on 27 Mar 12 - No Cached
  • A Gardner on 27 Mar 12
     
    Counter to "posit that college professors do not work hard enough" and by extension the lack of teaching/teachers below this echelon
meghankelly492

Music performance anxiety and occupational stress amongst opera chorus artists and thei... - 3 views

www.sciencedirect.com/...S0887618503000689

world Music

shared by meghankelly492 on 15 Sep 19 - No Cached
  • There has been no study exploring the prevalence or characteristics of MPA among professional choral musicians, who may be considered a vocal analogue of orchestral musicians. There may be systematic differences among different types of musicians regarding the level of performance anxiety experienced.
  • Chorus artists were ideal subjects for the proposed study because they are a clear exemplar of a group of musicians with high performance demands and expectations who have heavy rehearsal and performance schedules.
  • While this study suggests that treatment efforts be directed at reducing MPA rather than occupational stress, further investigation of the relationship between occupational stress and trait anxiety is needed.
Randolph Hollingsworth

Career and Technical Education: Five Ways That Pay Along the Way to the B.A. - 1 views

www9.georgetown.edu/...CTE.FiveWays.FullReport.pdf

Career and Technical Education transfer transition transition to college college readiness

shared by Randolph Hollingsworth on 21 Sep 12 - No Cached
  • Randolph Hollingsworth on 21 Sep 12
     
    New report from Center on Education and the Workforce, Georgetown University, September 2012, by Anthony P. Carnevale, Tamara Jayasundera, Andrew R. Hanson - Daniela Fairchild of the Thomas B. Fordham Institute writes in The Education Gadfly Weekly: "At 31 percent, the United States currently ranks second among OECD nations-behind Norway-for the percentage of its workforce with a four-year college education. That's the good news. The bad news is that we rank sixteenth for the percentage of our workforce with a sub-baccalaureate education (think: postsecondary and industry-based certificates, associate's degrees). Yet a swath of jobs in America calls for just that sort of preparation, which often begins in high school. Dubbed "middle jobs" in this report by the Center on Education and the Workforce, these employment opportunities pay at least $35,000 a year and are divided among white- and blue-collar work. Yet they are largely ignored in our era of "college for all." In two parts, this report delineates five major categories of career and technical education (CTE), then lists specific occupations that require this type of education. It's full of facts and figures and an excellent resource for those looking to expand rigorous CTE in the U.S. Most importantly, it presents this imperative: Collect data on students who emerge from these programs. By tracking their job placements and wage earnings, we can begin to rate CTE programs, shutter those that are ineffective, and scale up those that are successful. If CTE is ever to gain traction in the U.S.-and shed the stigma of being low-level voc-tech education for kids who can't quite make it academically-this will be a necessary first step."
Kate Pok

FinAid | Loans | Public Service Loan Forgiveness - 67 views

www.finaid.org/...publicservice.phtml

student loans money

shared by Kate Pok on 13 Feb 12 - Cached
  • Employment: The borrower must be employed full-time in a public service job for each of the 120 monthly payments. Public service jobs include, among other positions, emergency management, government (excluding time served as a member of Congress), military service, public safety and law enforcement (police and fire), public health (including nurses, nurse practitioners, nurses in a clinical setting, and full-time professionals engaged in health care practitioner occupations and health care support occupations), public education, early childhood education (including licensed or regulated childcare, Head Start, and State-funded prekindergarten), social work in a public child or family service agency, public services for individuals with disabilities or the elderly, public interest legal services (including prosecutors, public defenders and legal advocacy on behalf of low-income communities at a nonprofit organization), public librarians, school librarians and other school-based services, and employees of tax exempt 501(c)(3) organizations. Full-time faculty at tribal colleges and universities, as well as faculty teaching in high-need subject areas and shortage areas (including nurse faculty, foreign language faculty, and part-time faculty at community colleges), also qualify.
  • Kate Pok on 13 Feb 12
     
    FYI
Daniel Robinson

Research in Assistive Technology on ADVANCE for Occupational Therapy Practitioners - 24 views

occupational-therapy.advanceweb.com/...h-in-Assistive-Technology.aspx

shared by Daniel Robinson on 17 Jul 13 - No Cached
    • Daniel Robinson
      Daniel Robinson on 17 Jul 13
       
      I like that the article is written in a clear, easy to understand style.
Kelly Boushell

Coloniat Life in Early America - 78 views

www.kidinfo.com/...olonization_colonial_life.html

history resources elementary

shared by Kelly Boushell on 22 Jul 11 - Cached
  • Kelly Boushell on 22 Jul 11
     
    Learn What Daily Life was Like in Colonial Times, Colonial Life Trivia, How the Colonists Lived, What Foods the Colonists Ate, Facts about Colonial Occupations and Colonial Education on KidInfo.com's Colonial Life Resource Page.
Jon 5475

Views: Classroom Styles - Inside Higher Ed - 5 views

www.insidehighered.com/...t_teaching_and_learning_styles

college

shared by Jon 5475 on 28 Sep 11 - No Cached
    • Jon 5475
      Jon 5475 on 28 Sep 11
       
      Of course, students could benefit from choosing a school that challenges students' strengths and helps them improve their weaknesses. But the point is that the school's style could matter.
  • Where these preferences particularly become a problem is when the styles that lead to success in a particular course do not match the styles that will be needed for success either in more advanced courses in the same discipline, or, worse, in the occupation for which the course prepares students.
  • or example, in most occupations, one does not sit around taking short-answer or multiple-choice tests on the material one needs to succeed in the job. The risk, then, is that schools will reward students whose styles match the way they are taught but not the requirements of the work for which the teaching prepares them.
Nigel Coutts

Educating for the Unknown - The Learner's Way - 31 views

thelearnersway.net/...educating-for-the-unknown

learner unknown education technology collaboration teaching

shared by Nigel Coutts on 07 Aug 16 - No Cached
  • Nigel Coutts on 07 Aug 16
     
    What will tomorrow bring? What will life be like in 2028 as our youngest students of today exit school? What occupations will they enter and what challenges will they face? These are not new questions but with the rate of change in society and the pace at which technology evolves they are questions without clear answers. How then do schools prepare students for this uncertain tomorrow? What shall we teach our children today such that are well prepared for the challenges and opportunities of their tomorrow?
sha towers

Doctoral degrees: The disposable academic | The Economist - 27 views

www.economist.com/17723223

phd academia university education doctoral degrees

shared by sha towers on 31 Dec 10 - No Cached
  • There is an oversupply of PhDs. Although a doctorate is designed as training for a job in academia, the number of PhD positions is unrelated to the number of job openings. Meanwhile, business leaders complain about shortages of high-level skills, suggesting PhDs are not teaching the right things. The fiercest critics compare research doctorates to Ponzi or pyramid schemes.
  • A graduate assistant at Yale might earn $20,000 a year for nine months of teaching. The average pay of full professors in America was $109,000 in 2009
  • America produced more than 100,000 doctoral degrees between 2005 and 2009. In the same period there were just 16,000 new professorships.
  • ...12 more annotations...
  • PhD students and contract staff known as “postdocs”, described by one student as “the ugly underbelly of academia”, do much of the research these days.
  • In some areas five years as a postdoc is now a prerequisite for landing a secure full-time job.
  • About one-third of Austria’s PhD graduates take jobs unrelated to their degrees. In Germany 13% of all PhD graduates end up in lowly occupations. In the Netherlands the proportion is 21%.
  • In America only 57% of doctoral students will have a PhD ten years after their first date of enrolment. In the humanities, where most students pay for their own PhDs, the figure is 49%.
  • in 1966 only 23% of science and engineering PhDs in America were awarded to students born outside the country. By 2006 that proportion had increased to 48%. Foreign students tend to tolerate poorer working conditions, and the supply of cheap, brilliant, foreign labour also keeps wages down.
  • The earnings premium for a PhD is 26%. But the premium for a master’s degree, which can be accomplished in as little as one year, is almost as high, at 23%
  • PhDs in maths and computing, social sciences and languages earn no more than those with master’s degrees
  • the skills learned in the course of a PhD can be readily acquired through much shorter courses.
  • In one study of British PhD graduates, about a third admitted that they were doing their doctorate partly to go on being a student, or put off job hunting.
  • The more bright students stay at universities, the better it is for academics. Postgraduate students bring in grants and beef up their supervisors’ publication records.
  • Writing lab reports, giving academic presentations and conducting six-month literature reviews can be surprisingly unhelpful in a world where technical knowledge has to be assimilated quickly and presented simply to a wide audience.
  • Many of those who embark on a PhD are the smartest in their class and will have been the best at everything they have done. They will have amassed awards and prizes. As this year’s new crop of graduate students bounce into their research, few will be willing to accept that the system they are entering could be designed for the benefit of others, that even hard work and brilliance may well not be enough to succeed, and that they would be better off doing something else.
  • sha towers on 13 Apr 11
     
    article from the Economist "The Disposable Academic: Why doing a PhD is often a waste of time
Steve Ransom

U.S. Urged to Raise Teachers' Status - NYTimes.com - 77 views

www.nytimes.com/...16teachers.html

shared by Steve Ransom on 16 Mar 11 - No Cached
  • “Teaching in the U.S. is unfortunately no longer a high-status occupation,”
    • Steve Ransom
      Steve Ransom on 16 Mar 11
       
      Was it ever?
  • “Despite the characterization of some that teaching is an easy job, with short hours and summers off, the fact is that successful, dedicated teachers in the U.S. work long hours for little pay and, in many cases, insufficient support from their leadership.”
  • In South Korea, teachers are known as ‘nation builders,’ and I think it’s time we treated our teachers with the same level of respect,” Mr. Obama said in a speech on education on Monday.
  • ...2 more annotations...
  • “Make a concerted effort to raise the status of the teaching profession”
  • University teaching programs in the high-scoring countries admit only the best students, and “teaching education programs in the U.S. must become more selective and more rigorous,”
  • Bob Calder on 17 Mar 11
     
    ROK banned "beating" in schools about a month ago. So things are indeed different. We can compare pedagogy, but can we compare culture and outcomes that are embedded in culture? When children leave the classroom to take the TIMMS or PISA test, the rest of the class stands to applaud. When I explained this to my students, they were dumbfounded that Korean kids did anything that wasn't directly connected to personal advantage.
Peter Beens

BBC News - Why is teaching so stressful? - 115 views

www.bbc.co.uk/10093529

education stress Teaching BBC article

shared by Peter Beens on 04 Nov 11 - No Cached
  • "When a teacher becomes highly stressed, then their capacity to manage the classroom and relationships is often impaired."
  • teaching is the most stressful occupation there is
  • About 80% of teachers complain about stress at work and thousands of teachers leave the profession every year - predominantly due to stress
  • ...4 more annotations...
  • "In a classroom of 25 to 30 pupils, all with individual needs, you have to be on top of your game - particularly if you have a challenging class."
  • "In badly managed schools, head teachers are adding to the stress.
  • "Time away from the classroom is sometimes the best way to safeguard the well-being of individual teachers and prevent good teachers from leaving the profession altogether.
  • "Sickness absence decreases - and therefore standards of education for pupils improve - when schools implement meaningful policies that protect and enhance teachers' well-being."
Maureen Greenbaum

L3D Philosophy - 36 views

l3d.cs.colorado.edu/philosophy.html

technology Education

shared by Maureen Greenbaum on 17 Jun 13 - Cached
  • uture is not out there to be "discovered": It has to be invented and designed.
  • Learning is a process of knowledge construction, not of knowledge recording or absorption. Learning is knowledge-dependent; people use their existing knowledge to construct new knowledge. Learning is highly tuned to the situation in which it takes place. Learning needs to account for distributed cognition requiring knowledge in the head to combined with knowledge in the world. Learning is affected as much by motivational issues as by cognitive issues.
  • previous notions of a divided lifetime-education followed by work-are no longer tenable.
  • ...18 more annotations...
  • Professional activity has become so knowledge-intensive and fluid in content that learning has become an integral and inseparable part of "adult" work activities.
  • require educational tools and environments whose primary aim is to help cultivate the desire to learn and create, and not to simply communicate subject matter divorced from meaningful and personalized activity.
  • current uses of technology in education: it is used as an add-on to existing practices rather than a catalyst for fundamentally rethinking what education should be about in the next century
  • information technologies have been used to mechanize old ways of doing business‹rather than fundamentally rethinking the underlying work processes and promoting new ways to create artifacts and knowledge.
  • important challenge is that the ?ld basic skillsº such as reading, writing, and arithmetic, once acquired, were relevant for the duration of a human life; modern ?asic skillsº (tied to rapidly changing technologies) will change over time.
  • We need computational environments to support "new" frameworks for education such as lifelong learning, integration of working and learning, learning on demand, authentic problems, self-directed learning, information contextualized to the task at hand, (intrinsic) motivation, collaborative learning, and organizational learning.
  • Instructionist approaches are not changed by the fact that information is disseminated by an intelligent tutoring system.
  • Lifelong learning is a continuous engagement in acquiring and applying knowledge and skills in the context of authentic, self-directed problems.
  • ubstantial empirical evidence that the chief impediments to learning are not cognitive. It is not that students cannot learn; it is that they are not well motivated to learn.
  • Most of what any individual "knows" today is not in her or his head, but is out in the world (e.g., in other human heads or embedded in media).
  • technology should provide ways to "say the 'right' thing at the 'right' time in the 'right' way
  • challenge of whether we can create learning environments in which learners work hard, not because they have to, but because they want to. We need to alter the perception that serious learning has to be unpleasant rather than personally meaningful, empowering, engaging, and even fun.
  • making information relevant to the task at hand, providing challenges matched to current skills, creating communities (among peers, over the net), and providing access to real practitioners and experts.
  • What "basic skills" are required in a world in which occupational knowledge and skills become obsolete in years rather than decades?
  • reduce the gap between school and workplace learning
  • How can schools (which currently rely on closed-book exams, the solving of given problems, and so forth) be changed so that learners are prepared to function in environments requiring collaboration, creativity, problem framing, and distributed cognition?
  • problem solving in the real world includes problem framing calls into question the practice of asking students to solve mostly given problems.
  • teachers should see themselves not as truth-tellers and oracles, but as coaches, facilitators, learners, and mentors engaging with learners
Margaret FalerSweany

More Than Half of Students 'Engaged' in School, Says Poll - Education Week - 46 views

www.edweek.org/...28gallup.h33.html

education engaged school

shared by Margaret FalerSweany on 10 Apr 14 - No Cached
  • A broad focus on testing and new standards can lead schools to neglect the individualized needs of students,
  • unless U.S. schools can better align learning strategies and objectives with fundamental aspects of human nature, they will always struggle to help students achieve their full potential
  • Researchers classified 31 percent of teachers as “engaged” at work under that index, compared with 30 percent of respondents overall. But, among all occupations tracked in the survey, teachers were the least likely to say that their opinions counted at work.
jariza67

Letter_Birmingham_Jail(1).pdf - 21 views

Engage NY

shared by jariza67 on 03 Feb 16 - No Cached
  • Martin Luther King, Jr.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      Martin Luther King Jr. is BOTH a Reverend (priest) AND a Doctor of Theology (study of religion) at this time in his life.
  • From the Birmingham jail, where he was imprisoned as a participant in nonviolent demonstrations against segregation, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., wrote in longhand the letter which follows.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: Why was Dr. King sent to jail? What law(s) did he break?
  • Jr., wrote in longhand the letter which follows. It was his response to a public statement of concern and caution issued by eig
  • ...24 more annotations...
  • It was his response to a public statement of concern and caution issued by eight white religious leaders of the South.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: Why were the 8 religious leaders angry at Dr. King?
  • nwise and untimely
  • WHILE confined here in the Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent statement calling our present activities "unwise and untimely."
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      Dr. King starts off his letter by addressing his critics in the opening of his letter. QUESTION: WHY DOES KING ADDRESS HIS CRITICS IN THIS MANNER? ("My Dear Fellow Clergymen:")
  • "unwise and untimely."
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: Why do the 8 white priests think King's protests are "unwise and untimely?" QUESTION: Why does King refer to this in his letter?
  • unwise
  • unwise
  • unwise
  • unwise
  • ctive
  • I would like to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: How has King set up his defense?
  • you are men of genuine good will
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: What are King's reasons for this remark?
  • "outsiders coming in."
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      QUESTION: Why is King considered an outsider?
  • I am here because I have basic organizational ties here.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      DISCUSSION QUESTIONS (REVIEW Para. 1-2) 1. How does King begin the letter? 2. What is the impact of King's word choices? 3. HOW DO SPECIFIC WORDS AND PHRASES CONTRIBUTE TO THE IMPACT OF KING'S OPENING? 4. What are King's reasons for being in Birmingham?
  • carried
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 5. consented (v.) - permitted, approved, or agreed.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: sought (v.) - tried or attempted
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 4. untimely (adj.) - happening too soon or too early.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      "My Dear Fellow Clergymen:" (Mr. Ariza's note) Dr. King originally addresses his famous "Letter From A Birmingham Jail" to 8 Alabama clergymen (priests) who (in a local newspaper ad) criticized King's protests and demonstrations, while also labeling King as "a law-breaker." With no paper in his jail cell, King used the margins of this newspaper to write his Famous reply to their criticisms of him. KING'S LETTER (written in August 1963) is what brought the world's attention to our country's problems with segregation and racism.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 6. Seldom (adj.) on only a few occasions; rarely, not often.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 1: fellow (adj.) -belonging to the same class or group; united by the same occupation, interests, etc.).
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 2. clergymen (n.) - religious leaders
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: 3. confined (adj.) - unable to leave a place because of illness, imprisonment, etc.
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      LINK FOR THE ORIGINAL LETTER WRITTEN TO KING BY THE 8 WHITE CLERGYMEN http://www.massresistance.org/docs/gen/09a/mlk_day/statement.html
    • jariza67
      jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
       
      VOCABULARY: Consented (v.) - permitted, approved, or agreed
  • jariza67 on 03 Feb 16
     
    Letter From a Birmingham Jail full text pdf w ANNOTATIONS Mr. Ariza/ Ms. Bozeman AUGUST MARTIN HS
Teri Gergen

The American Occupational Therapy Association's Presentations on SlideShare - 7 views

www.slideshare.net/...presentations

shared by Teri Gergen on 13 Feb 16 - No Cached
  • Teri Gergen on 13 Feb 16
     
    AOTA Education Summit 2015
meghankelly492

(PDF) A Systematic Review of Treatments for Music Performance Anxiety - 2 views

www.researchgate.net/..._for_Music_Performance_Anxiety

world Music

shared by meghankelly492 on 15 Sep 19 - No Cached
  • Four other studies (three of which are dissertations) assessed behavioral treatments forMPA on music students. Grishman (1989) and Mansberger (1988) used standard musclerelaxation techniques, Wardle (1969) compared insight/relaxation and systematic desensi-tisation techniques, and Deen (1999) used awareness and breathing techniques
  • A systematic review of all available treatment studies for music performance anxiety was undertaken.
  • reported that 24% of musicians frequently suffered stage fright, defined in this study as themost severe form of MPA, 13% experienced acute anxiety and 17% experienceddepression.
  • ...24 more annotations...
  • 59% of musicians in symphony orchestras reported performance anxiety severe enough toimpair their professional and/or personal functioning.
  • A recent study indicated that MPA is not limited to orchestralmusicians, showing that opera chorus artists are also prone to high levels of performanceanxiety
  • However, since not allperformers suffer the same degree of MPA, or indeed report the same levels of occupationalstress, individual differences in a range of psychological characteristics are likely to accountfor variations in the degree to which musicians experience symptoms
  • A large number of treatment modalities (e.g., behavioral, cognitive, pharmacological andcomplementary) has been developed for music performance anxiety (MPA)
  • However, areview of this literature indicates that the field is still in its infancy with respect to theconceptual and theoretical formulations of the nature of MPA and its empiricalinvestigation.
  • Anxiety may be triggered by conscious,rational concerns or by cues that trigger, unconsciously, earlier anxiety producingexperiences or somatic sensations.
  • These findings suggest that multi-modal interventions are needed toaddress the multiple difficulties experienced by test anxious individuals.
  • with some focusing on behavioral change, some on cognitivechange, others on reduction of physiological symptoms through the use of pharmacotherapy,and some on idiosyncratic formulations
  • For drug studies, the keywords were beta-blocker [Beta blockers block the effect ofadrenaline (the hormone norepinephrine) on the body’s beta receptors. This slows downthe nerve impulses that travel through the heart. As a result, the resting heart rate is lower,the heart does not have to work as hard and requires less blood and oxygen
  • Brodsky (1996) and Nube´(1991) were most useful.
  • The interventionsassessed included systematic desensitization, progressive muscle relaxation, awareness andbreathing and behavioural rehearsal
  • In summary, behavioral treatments do appear to be at least minimally effective in thetreatment of MPA, although the heterogeneity of the treatment approaches employedmakes it difficult to isolate consistent evidence for the superiority of any one type ofbehavioral intervention
  • Two studies (see Tables II and IV) assessed the therapeutic effect of cognitive techniquesalone on MPA.
  • A dissertation by Patston (1996) reported a comparison of cognitive (e.g.positive self-talk, etc.) and physiological strategies in the treatment of MPA. No significantimprovements on vocal and visual manifestations of performance anxiety were found foreither treatment or control groups. However, the sample consisted of only 17 operastudents who were not specifically selected on the basis of their MPA severity, and theintervention was conducted by the author, a singer and teacher, who had no training inpsychology.
  • Three studies (see Table III) assessed the therapeutic effect of cognitive-behavioralstrategies on MPA. Harris (1987), Roland (1993), and Kendrick et al. (1982) all reportedthat standard CBT techniques were effective in the treatment of MPA in studentsspecifically selected for study because of the severity of their MPA.
  • Harris (1987) and Roland(1993) reported that CBT led to reductions in state anxiety as measured by the STAI,although Kendrick et al. (1982) failed to find a significant difference between treatment andcontrol groups on this measure.
  • The evidence for improvements in MPA following CBT is quite consistent, althoughfurther studies with larger samples are needed to confirm this evidence.
  • Beta-blockers have become increasingly popular among performers in recent years. Forexample, Lockwood (1989), in a survey of 2,122 orchestral musicians, found that 27% usedpropranolol to manage their anxiety prior to a performance; 19% of this group used thedrug on a daily basis.
  • Nube´ (1991) identified nine studies examining the effects of various beta-blockers(Atenolol, Metopolol, Nadolol, Oxprenolol, Propranolol, Pindolol) on MPA.
  • The findings regarding the effects of beta blockers on otheroutcome measures were less conclusive.
  • A rigorous definition of MPA is needed to advance treatment. However, defining MPA as asocial anxiety (social phobia) using criteria set out in DSM-IV-TR (APA, 2000) as theinclusion criteria may be too restrictive, particularly if the musician presenting for treatmentexperiences MPA as a focal anxiety (ie does not meet other criteria for social anxiety).
  • Few ofthe intervention studies reviewed acknowledged that performers need a certain amount ofarousal or anxiety to maximise their performance.
  • None of the studies could be pooled in a meta-analysis primarily because too fewprovided sufficient data to calculate effect sizes, use of diverse subject groups andtreatments, duration and intensity of treatment, and use of disparate outcome measures
  • In conclusion, the literature on treatment approaches for MPA is fragmented, incon-sistent, and methodologically weak. These limitations make it difficult to reach any firmconclusions about the effectiveness of the various treatment approaches reviewed. Forsignificant progress to be made, future research will require a clear definition of MPA,consistency and strength in methodology, and the development of robust and appropriateoutcome measures.
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